American Politics and US Constitution | Unit 4, Modules 10–12
Difficulty: Intermediate | Prerequisites: Units 2–3 (Constitutional framework and government structure)
American democracy works through elections, organised groups, and individual civic action. The Electoral College, primary elections, and campaign finance rules shape how leaders are chosen. Interest groups and political parties channel public preferences into policy. Voter turnout in the US is relatively low compared to other democracies, and understanding why is a key theme of this unit.
Electoral College
The body of electors that formally elects the President and Vice President. Each state gets electors equal to its total congressional delegation. A candidate needs 270 of 538 votes. Think of it as the intermediary between the popular vote and the presidency.
Winner-take-all system
The rule used by most states in which the candidate who wins the popular vote in a state receives all of that state's electoral votes. Maine and Nebraska are the exceptions, allocating some electors by congressional district.
Primary election
An election in which party members choose their candidate for the general election. Can be open (any registered voter may participate) or closed (only registered party members may vote).
Caucus
A meeting of party members to select candidates or decide policy. Caucuses are less common than primaries and tend to favour highly motivated, ideologically committed voters.
Gerrymandering
The practice of drawing electoral district boundaries to advantage a particular party or group. In simple terms, politicians choosing their voters instead of voters choosing their politicians.
Interest group
An organised group of people who share a common goal and try to influence government policy. Examples: the National Rifle Association, the Sierra Club, the AARP. Unlike political parties, interest groups do not run candidates for office.
Lobbying
The act of attempting to influence government officials on behalf of an interest group. Lobbyists may provide information, draft legislation, organise grassroots campaigns, or make campaign contributions.
Political Action Committee (PAC)
An organisation that raises and spends money to elect or defeat candidates. Super PACs can raise unlimited funds but may not coordinate directly with a candidate's campaign.
Voter turnout
The percentage of eligible voters who cast ballots in a given election. US turnout is typically lower than in other established democracies, particularly in midterm and local elections.
Suffrage
The right to vote. In the US, suffrage has been expanded over time through constitutional amendments (Fifteenth: race; Nineteenth: sex; Twenty-Sixth: age 18) and legislation (Voting Rights Act of 1965).
Swing state (battleground state)
A state where neither major party has a reliable majority, making it competitive in presidential elections. Candidates concentrate their time and resources in these states because of the winner-take-all system.
Presidential elections:
The process begins with primary elections and caucuses, in which each party selects its nominee. The national party conventions formally nominate the candidates. The general election follows in November.
The President is not elected by direct popular vote. The Electoral College determines the winner. Each state has electors equal to its number of House members plus two senators. In 48 states, the winner of the state popular vote takes all of that state's electors. A candidate needs 270 electoral votes to win. If no candidate reaches 270, the House of Representatives chooses the President (each state delegation gets one vote).
The Electoral College has several consequences. Candidates focus on swing states rather than campaigning nationally. A candidate can win the presidency while losing the national popular vote (this has happened five times, most recently in 2016). Small states are slightly overrepresented because every state gets at least three electors.
Congressional elections:
House members represent districts and face election every two years. District boundaries are redrawn after each Census, and the party controlling the state legislature typically draws the lines, which creates opportunities for gerrymandering.
Senators represent entire states and serve six-year terms, with roughly one-third of the Senate up for election every two years.
Incumbents (sitting officeholders) win re-election at very high rates, partly because of name recognition, fundraising advantages, and the ability to deliver benefits to their constituents (constituency service).
Campaign finance:
Campaign spending is regulated by federal law. Key developments include the Federal Election Campaign Act (1971), the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold, 2002), and the Supreme Court's decision in Citizens United v. FEC (2010), which ruled that political spending by corporations and unions is protected speech under the First Amendment. Super PACs can raise unlimited funds but cannot coordinate directly with candidates.
Interest groups are organisations that seek to influence public policy without running candidates for office. They are a central feature of American democracy, and the First Amendment protects the right to petition the government.
Types of interest groups:
Economic groups: Represent business, labour, or professional interests. Examples: US Chamber of Commerce, AFL-CIO, American Medical Association.
Public interest groups: Advocate for causes that benefit the broader public rather than a narrow membership. Examples: Sierra Club (environment), ACLU (civil liberties), Common Cause (government reform).
Single-issue groups: Focus on one policy area. Examples: National Rifle Association (gun rights), NARAL (reproductive rights).
Ideological groups: Promote a broad political philosophy. Examples: Heritage Foundation (conservative), Center for American Progress (liberal).
How interest groups influence policy:
Lobbying: meeting with legislators, providing research, drafting bill language
Campaign contributions through PACs and Super PACs
Grassroots mobilisation: organising members to contact their representatives
Litigation: filing lawsuits or amicus curiae ("friend of the court") briefs
Media campaigns: shaping public opinion through advertising and public relations
The pluralist vs elite theory debate:
Pluralists argue that power in America is distributed among many competing groups, and the policy process reflects their bargaining. Elite theorists argue that a small number of wealthy, well-connected groups dominate policy and that ordinary citizens have limited influence. This debate is a recurring theme in American politics scholarship.
Who votes and why:
Voter turnout in US presidential elections typically ranges from 55% to 65% of the eligible population. Midterm elections draw considerably less, often around 40% to 50%. Several factors correlate with higher turnout: age (older citizens vote more), education (more education correlates with higher turnout), income, and strength of partisan identification.
Barriers to participation:
Registration requirements (most states require voters to register in advance)
Voter ID laws
Felon disenfranchisement (varies by state)
Inconvenient polling locations or hours
The frequency of elections (the US holds more elections than most democracies, which can produce "voter fatigue")
Expansions of suffrage:
The right to vote has been extended through constitutional amendments and legislation over nearly two centuries:
Fifteenth Amendment (1870): prohibited denying the vote on the basis of race
Nineteenth Amendment (1920): extended the vote to women
Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964): abolished poll taxes in federal elections
Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971): lowered the voting age to 18
Voting Rights Act of 1965: prohibited discriminatory voting practices and provided federal oversight of elections in states with histories of discrimination
Models of voter behaviour:
Party identification: The single strongest predictor of how someone votes. Most voters identify with a party and vote consistently for its candidates.
Retrospective voting: Voters judge incumbents based on recent performance ("Are you better off than you were four years ago?").
Prospective voting: Voters choose based on which candidate's policy proposals they prefer.
Issue voting: Voters prioritise specific policy positions (the economy, healthcare, immigration) and choose the candidate closest to their views.
Forms of participation beyond voting:
Political participation is broader than elections. It includes contacting elected officials, attending town halls, donating to campaigns or causes, joining interest groups, volunteering, protesting, and running for office.
Students often think the President is elected by direct popular vote. The Electoral College, not the national popular vote, determines the outcome.
Students sometimes confuse interest groups with political parties. Interest groups try to influence policy; political parties run candidates for office and seek to control the government.
Students often believe PACs and Super PACs are the same thing. PACs can contribute directly to candidates but have strict contribution limits. Super PACs can raise unlimited funds but cannot coordinate with candidates.
Students often assume that low voter turnout means people are apathetic. Some non-voters face structural barriers (registration requirements, lack of time off, long queues). Others may feel their vote does not matter in non-competitive districts or states.
Know how the Electoral College works, including the number of electors, the winner-take-all rule, and what happens if no candidate reaches 270.
Be ready to distinguish between open and closed primaries, and between primaries and caucuses.
Understand the impact of Citizens United v. FEC on campaign finance.
Know the constitutional amendments that expanded suffrage (15th, 19th, 24th, 26th) and what each one did.
Be able to compare the pluralist and elite theories of interest group influence.
Fill in the blank: A candidate needs ______ electoral votes to win the presidency.
270
True or False: Super PACs can donate directly to a candidate's campaign.
False. Super PACs cannot coordinate with or donate directly to candidates.
Fill in the blank: The ______ Amendment extended the right to vote to women.
Nineteenth
True or False: Interest groups run their own candidates for public office.
False. That is what political parties do.
Fill in the blank: The single strongest predictor of how a person votes is their ______.
Party identification
Q: How does the Electoral College affect presidential campaign strategy?
A: Because of the winner-take-all rule, candidates concentrate their resources on swing states where the outcome is uncertain, rather than campaigning in states where one party has a reliable majority. This means voters in non-competitive states receive less attention.
Q: What is gerrymandering, and why does it matter?
A: Gerrymandering is the drawing of electoral district boundaries to favour a particular party or group. It matters because it can create "safe" districts where one party is virtually guaranteed to win, reducing electoral competition and giving the line-drawing party an advantage in the state legislature or House delegation.
Q: Name three ways interest groups attempt to influence government policy.
A: (1) Lobbying legislators and executive officials directly. (2) Making campaign contributions through PACs. (3) Mobilising members to contact their representatives (grassroots campaigning).
Q: What did the Voting Rights Act of 1965 do?
A: It prohibited discriminatory voting practices (such as literacy tests) and established federal oversight of election administration in states and localities with a history of discrimination. It is widely regarded as the most effective piece of civil rights legislation in American history.
Q: Explain the difference between retrospective and prospective voting.
A: Retrospective voting is when voters judge the incumbent's past performance and decide whether to reward or punish it. Prospective voting is when voters evaluate candidates' policy proposals and choose the one whose future plans they prefer.
This unit connects back to Unit 2 (the Founders' design of the Electoral College and their ambivalence about direct democracy) and Unit 3 (the structure of Congress and the presidency that elections fill).
It connects forward to Unit 5 (Civil Liberties and Civil Rights), where the expansion of suffrage and the Voting Rights Act reappear in a constitutional context. Interest group lobbying and campaign finance also intersect with First Amendment free speech protections covered in Unit 5.
Unit 6 (Public Opinion and Media) picks up where this unit leaves off, examining how voters form their opinions and how media shapes political behaviour.
Political participation, elections, Electoral College, presidential election, congressional election, primary election, caucus, open primary, closed primary, general election, swing state, battleground state, gerrymandering, redistricting, winner-take-all, campaign finance, PAC, Super PAC, Citizens United, interest groups, lobbying, pluralism, elite theory, voter turnout, suffrage, Fifteenth Amendment, Nineteenth Amendment, Twenty-Fourth Amendment, Twenty-Sixth Amendment, Voting Rights Act 1965, party identification, retrospective voting, prospective voting, issue voting, incumbency advantage, constituency service, HST 321, American Politics, US Constitution, WGU