Source: Psychology 100 Finals Review Packet, The Ohio State University
Difficulty: Introductory. No prerequisites beyond general familiarity with basic psychology vocabulary. If terms like "unconscious" or "correlation" feel unfamiliar, revisit your intro methods notes first.
Personality psychology asks the question everyone has an opinion on: why do people act the way they do, and how stable are those patterns? This unit covers the major theoretical traditions (psychoanalytic, trait, and factor-analytic), the tools psychologists use to measure personality, and the debate over whether personality is best studied at the level of universal laws or individual uniqueness. You should already be comfortable with the idea that psychology tries to measure things scientifically, because personality research leans heavily on statistical methods like factor analysis.
Personality is the study of enduring behavioural patterns. Freud proposed a three-part psyche (id, ego, superego) driven by unconscious forces. Modern research relies on the Big Five trait model, identified through factor analysis, and measures personality with structured tests like the MMPI.
Trait
A relatively enduring predisposition that influences behaviour across many situations. Think of it as a consistent pattern in how someone tends to act, regardless of the context.
Nomothetic approach
Approach to personality that focuses on identifying general laws governing the behaviour of all individuals. In simple terms, this means looking for rules that apply to everyone.
Idiographic approach
Approach to personality that focuses on the unique configuration of characteristics and life history within a single person. In simple terms, it treats each person as a one-off case study.
Molecular genetic studies
Investigations that pinpoint specific genes associated with personality traits.
Somatogenic
Physiologically caused. Used when a condition has a bodily, biological origin.
Psychogenic
Psychologically caused. The counterpart to somatogenic.
Catharsis
Feeling of relief following a dramatic outpouring of emotion. Think of it as the emotional release you get after a good cry or an intense argument.
Psychic determinism
The assumption that all psychological events have a cause, that nothing in mental life happens by accident. This is a core Freudian idea.
Id
The reservoir of our most primitive impulses, including sex and aggression. It operates entirely on the pleasure principle.
Pleasure principle
The tendency of the id to strive for immediate gratification, no delay, no compromise.
Ego
The psyche's executive and principal decision maker. It mediates between the id's demands and reality.
Reality principle
The tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet. In simple terms, the ego says "not now, but later."
Superego
Our sense of morality. It represents internalised societal and parental standards of right and wrong.
Defence mechanism
Unconscious manoeuvres intended to minimise anxiety. Examples include repression, denial, and projection.
Factor analysis
A statistical technique that analyses the correlations among responses on personality inventories and other measures. It is the mathematical backbone of the Big Five.
Big Five
Five traits that have surfaced repeatedly in factor analysis of personality measures: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN).
Lexical approach
The idea that the most critical features of personality are embedded in our language, because people naturally develop words for traits that matter.
Structured personality tests
Paper-and-pencil tests consisting of questions that respondents answer in one of a few fixed ways (e.g. true/false, multiple choice).
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
A widely used structured test designed to assess symptoms of mental disorders. It is the gold standard clinical personality assessment.
Empirical (data-based) method of test construction
Approach to building tests in which researchers begin with two or more criterion groups and examine which items best distinguish them. The test items are chosen by what works statistically, not by what looks relevant.
Face validity
The extent to which respondents can tell what the test is measuring. A test with high face validity wears its purpose on its sleeve.
Freud divided the psyche into three structures: the id (primitive drives), the ego (reality-based decision maker), and the superego (moral compass).
The id runs on the pleasure principle, seeking instant gratification. The ego runs on the reality principle, delaying gratification until an appropriate outlet appears.
Psychic determinism underpins the whole framework: every slip, dream, and symptom has a psychological cause.
When the ego is overwhelmed, it deploys defence mechanisms (repression, projection, displacement, etc.) to keep anxiety at bay.
Catharsis describes the relief that follows a major emotional release, a concept Freud borrowed from Breuer's early work.
Somatogenic means physiologically caused; psychogenic means psychologically caused. Freud argued that many conditions previously assumed to be somatogenic were in fact psychogenic.
Factor analysis crunches correlations across large data sets and extracts clusters of traits that tend to co-occur.
The Big Five (OCEAN) emerged from decades of factor-analytic research: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
The lexical approach supports this: if a personality dimension matters to people, they coin words for it. The Big Five map onto trait-words found across many languages.
The nomothetic approach seeks universal laws (e.g. "extraversion predicts sociability across all people").
The idiographic approach zooms in on one person's unique trait configuration and life story.
Modern personality research uses both, but exams tend to test whether you can distinguish them.
Structured personality tests use fixed-format questions (true/false, Likert scales).
The MMPI is the most widely used clinical personality test; it was built using the empirical method of test construction, selecting items purely by whether they statistically separate criterion groups.
Face validity is whether the test looks like it measures what it claims. The MMPI deliberately has low face validity (items can seem unrelated to what they actually measure), which makes it harder for respondents to fake.
Molecular genetic studies try to link specific genes to personality traits, an area still in early stages.
Students often confuse the ego with arrogance or self-importance. In Freud's model, the ego is simply the rational mediator between the id and reality.
The Big Five are dimensions, not types. Everyone sits somewhere on each scale; you are not "an extravert" or "not an extravert" but rather somewhere along the continuum.
Face validity sounds like a good thing, but high face validity can be a problem in clinical testing because it lets people fake their answers.
Psychic determinism does not mean psychic powers. It means every mental event has a cause, even if that cause is unconscious.
⚠️ Know the three components of Freud's model (id, ego, superego) and which principle governs each.
⚠️ Be able to distinguish nomothetic from idiographic approaches with an example of each.
⚠️ The MMPI uses the empirical method of test construction, not rational or face-valid item selection. This distinction is commonly tested.
⚠️ Factor analysis is the method behind the Big Five. Know what it does (finds correlations among items) and why it matters (it is data-driven, not theory-driven).
⚠️ Defence mechanisms are unconscious. If someone is doing it on purpose, it is coping, not defence.
True or False: The id operates on the reality principle. Answer: False. The id operates on the pleasure principle; the ego operates on the reality principle.
True or False: The MMPI has high face validity. Answer: False. It was built using empirical methods and many items do not obviously relate to what they measure.
Fill in the blank: The statistical technique used to identify the Big Five traits is called ______. Answer: Factor analysis.
True or False: The idiographic approach seeks laws that apply to all people. Answer: False. That is the nomothetic approach. The idiographic approach studies one person's unique profile.
Fill in the blank: The acronym for remembering the Big Five traits is ______. Answer: OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism).
Q: A researcher creates a personality test by giving hundreds of items to a group of patients with depression and a group without, then keeping only the items that statistically distinguish the two groups. What method of test construction is this?
A: The empirical (data-based) method of test construction.
Q: Which structure of the psyche is responsible for mediating between primitive desires and moral standards?
A: The ego. It balances the id's demands against the superego's moral rules, guided by the reality principle.
Q: A student claims that the Big Five model is based on Freud's psychoanalytic theory. Is this correct? Why or why not?
A: This is incorrect. The Big Five emerged from factor analysis of personality questionnaires and the lexical approach. It is a trait-based, data-driven model with no roots in psychoanalytic theory.
Q: Explain the difference between face validity and empirical validity using the MMPI as an example.
A: Face validity is whether items look related to what the test measures. The MMPI has low face validity (items can seem odd or irrelevant), but high empirical validity because the items were selected based on their statistical ability to distinguish clinical groups.
Q: What is the key claim of psychic determinism?
A: That all psychological events have a cause. Nothing in mental life is random or accidental, according to this Freudian assumption.
Social psychology sits at the intersection of individual behaviour and group influence. This section covers how other people shape what we think, feel, and do, from conformity and obedience to prejudice and persuasion. It also introduces core concepts in attribution (how we explain behaviour) and prosocial/antisocial behaviour. These topics connect directly to the personality material above: personality tells us about enduring individual patterns, while social psychology shows how powerfully situations can override those patterns.
Social psychology studies how other people influence our behaviour, beliefs, and attitudes. Key themes include the fundamental attribution error (overestimating personality as a cause of others' behaviour), conformity and obedience to authority, persuasion techniques, group dynamics like groupthink and social loafing, and the psychology of prejudice and stereotyping.
Social psychology
The study of how people influence others' behaviour, beliefs, and attitudes.
Social facilitation
Enhancement of performance brought about by the presence of others. Think of it as performing better when someone is watching (on well-practised tasks).
Attribution
The process of assigning causes to behaviour. When you decide why someone acted a certain way, you are making an attribution.
Fundamental attribution error (FAE)
The tendency to overestimate dispositional (personality-based) influences on other people's behaviour while underestimating situational factors. In simple terms, you see someone trip and think "clumsy" rather than "uneven pavement."
Social comparison theory
The theory that we evaluate our beliefs, attitudes, and abilities by comparing ourselves with others.
Mass hysteria
An outbreak of irrational behaviour spread by social contagion.
Conformity
The tendency of people to alter their behaviour as a result of group pressure. Asch's line experiments are the classic demonstration.
Deindividuation
The tendency to engage in uncharacteristic behaviour when stripped of one's usual identity, often in crowds or behind anonymity.
Groupthink
Emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking and sound decision making.
Group polarisation
The tendency of group discussion to strengthen (not moderate) the dominant positions held by individual members.
Cults
Groups of individuals who exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause.
Inoculation effect
A persuasion technique: first introduce reasons why a position might be correct, then debunk them. This "inoculates" the audience against that position.
Obedience
Adherence to instructions from those of higher authority. Milgram's experiments are the landmark study here.
Pluralistic ignorance
The error of assuming that no one else in a group perceives things as you do. Everyone privately disagrees but publicly goes along.
Diffusion of responsibility
Reduction in feelings of personal responsibility when others are present. A key factor in the bystander effect.
Social loafing
The phenomenon whereby individuals become less productive in groups. Think of it as hiding in the group effort.
Altruism
Helping others for unselfish reasons, with no expectation of personal gain.
Enlightenment effect
Learning about psychological research can change real-world behaviour for the better. Knowing about the bystander effect, for instance, can make you more likely to help.
Aggression
Behaviour intended to harm others, either verbally or physically.
Relational aggression
Forms of indirect aggression involving spreading rumours, gossiping, and nonverbal putdowns for social manipulation.
Belief
A conclusion regarding factual evidence.
Attitude
A belief that includes an emotional component.
Self-monitoring
A personality trait that assesses the extent to which people's behaviour reflects their true feelings and attitudes. High self-monitors adjust their behaviour to fit the situation; low self-monitors act consistently regardless of context.
Cognitive dissonance
The unpleasant mental tension resulting from holding two conflicting thoughts or beliefs. We are motivated to reduce it, often by changing one of the beliefs.
Self-perception theory
The theory that we acquire our attitudes by observing our own behaviour. If you catch yourself volunteering often, you conclude you must value helping.
Impression management theory
The theory that we do not really change our attitudes but report that we have, so our behaviours appear consistent with our stated attitudes.
Foot-in-the-door technique
A persuasive technique involving making a small request before making a bigger one.
Door-in-the-face technique
A persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request first, then following with the smaller request you actually want.
Low-ball technique
A persuasive technique in which a seller quotes a low price, then adds on costs once the buyer has committed.
Prejudice
Drawing conclusions about a person, group, or situation prior to evaluating the evidence.
Adaptive conservatism
An evolutionary principle that creates a predisposition towards distrusting anything or anyone unfamiliar or different.
In-group bias
The tendency to favour individuals within our group over those from outside it.
Out-group homogeneity
The tendency to view all individuals outside our group as highly similar. "They're all the same."
Discrimination
Negative behaviour toward members of out-groups.
Stereotype
A belief, positive or negative, about the characteristics of a group's members that is applied generally to most of them.
Implicit and explicit stereotypes
Beliefs about an out-group of which we are either unaware (implicit) or aware (explicit).
Ultimate attribution error
The assumption that behaviours among individual members of a group are due to their internal dispositions, an extension of the FAE applied to entire groups.
Scapegoat hypothesis
The claim that prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes.
Just-world hypothesis
The claim that our attributions are shaped by a deep-seated assumption that the world is fair and all things happen for a reason.
Jigsaw classrooms
An educational approach designed to minimise prejudice by requiring all children to make independent contributions to a shared project.
Attribution is the process of explaining why people behave as they do.
The fundamental attribution error is the single most tested concept in this section: we overweight personality and underweight situation when explaining other people's behaviour.
The ultimate attribution error extends this to groups: we attribute an entire group's behaviour to their dispositions rather than their circumstances.
The just-world hypothesis is a cognitive bias that leads people to believe that others get what they deserve.
Conformity (Asch): people change their answers to match a group, even when the group is clearly wrong.
Obedience (Milgram): people follow authority figures to a disturbing degree.
Groupthink occurs when the desire for group harmony overrides realistic evaluation of alternatives.
Group polarisation means discussion pushes a group toward a more extreme version of its initial leaning, not toward compromise.
Deindividuation explains mob behaviour: anonymity lowers inhibitions.
Social loafing means people exert less effort in groups. Social facilitation is the opposite effect on simple tasks: having an audience improves performance.
Diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance together explain the bystander effect: everyone assumes someone else will act, and everyone privately disagrees but nobody speaks up.
Foot-in-the-door: start small, then escalate.
Door-in-the-face: start absurdly big, then ask for what you really want.
Low-ball: quote a low price, then add hidden costs after commitment.
The inoculation effect is a defence against persuasion: expose someone to weak versions of an argument and debunk them, and they become resistant to the real thing.
A belief is factual; an attitude adds an emotional layer.
Cognitive dissonance is the discomfort of holding contradictory beliefs. People resolve it by changing one belief, adding new cognitions, or trivialising the conflict.
Self-perception theory offers an alternative: we infer our attitudes from observing what we do.
Impression management theory suggests we do not change attitudes at all but simply report consistency.
Prejudice is a premature judgement; discrimination is the behaviour that follows from it; a stereotype is the belief that fuels both.
In-group bias and out-group homogeneity are near-universal tendencies.
Adaptive conservatism offers an evolutionary explanation for distrust of the unfamiliar.
The scapegoat hypothesis explains prejudice as displaced frustration.
Jigsaw classrooms are a tested intervention: requiring cooperative, interdependent contributions reduces prejudice among children.
Students often think social facilitation always improves performance. It does so only on well-practised or simple tasks. On complex or unfamiliar tasks, an audience can worsen performance.
Group polarisation does not mean the group becomes more divided internally. It means the group as a whole shifts toward a more extreme version of where it was already leaning.
Cognitive dissonance and self-perception theory are rival explanations for attitude change, not different names for the same thing. Exams may ask you to distinguish them.
The fundamental attribution error applies to how we judge other people. We tend to be more situational when explaining our own behaviour (this is called the actor-observer bias, though the review packet does not name it separately).
⚠️ The fundamental attribution error is one of the most frequently tested concepts in introductory psychology. Be able to define it and give a concrete example.
⚠️ Know all three persuasion techniques (foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, low-ball) and be able to identify which is which from a scenario.
⚠️ Cognitive dissonance vs. self-perception theory: be ready to explain how each accounts for attitude change and when each is more applicable.
⚠️ The bystander effect draws on both diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance. Know both mechanisms.
⚠️ Distinguish prejudice (attitude), discrimination (behaviour), and stereotype (belief). These are not interchangeable.
True or False: The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate situational factors when explaining others' behaviour. Answer: False. It is the tendency to overestimate dispositional (personality) factors.
Fill in the blank: Making a small request before a large one is the ______ technique. Answer: Foot-in-the-door.
True or False: Group polarisation means that group discussion leads to more moderate positions. Answer: False. It leads to more extreme positions in the direction the group was already leaning.
Fill in the blank: The unpleasant tension from holding two conflicting beliefs is called ______. Answer: Cognitive dissonance.
True or False: Prejudice is a behaviour directed at out-group members. Answer: False. Prejudice is an attitude (premature judgement). Discrimination is the behaviour.
Q: A car salesperson tells a customer the price is $15,000. After the customer agrees, the salesperson mentions $2,000 in additional fees. Which persuasion technique is this?
A: The low-ball technique.
Q: During a group project, three students do most of the work while two contribute very little. What social psychology concept explains the two students' reduced effort?
A: Social loafing, the tendency for individuals to exert less effort in group settings.
Q: After volunteering at a food bank every weekend for a month, Priya decides she must care deeply about hunger issues. Which theory best explains how Priya formed this attitude?
A: Self-perception theory. She inferred her attitude from observing her own behaviour.
Q: A hiring manager assumes a job candidate failed at a previous role because of laziness, ignoring the fact that the company went bankrupt. What error is the manager making?
A: The fundamental attribution error: overestimating dispositional causes (laziness) and underestimating situational causes (company bankruptcy).
Q: Explain the difference between in-group bias and out-group homogeneity.
A: In-group bias is favouring members of your own group. Out-group homogeneity is perceiving members of other groups as all being alike. One is about preferential treatment; the other is about how you perceive the other group's diversity.
Personality connects directly to Psychological Disorders (personality disorders like borderline and antisocial are extreme, inflexible trait patterns) and to Intelligence (factor analysis is used in both domains). Social psychology links to Psych Treatments (cognitive behaviour therapy targets the kind of irrational thinking covered in attribution theory) and to Stress and Health (social support is a key buffer against stress, and the biopsychosocial model echoes the interplay of person and situation that social psychology studies).
Personality traits, Big Five, OCEAN, factor analysis, Freud, id ego superego, defence mechanisms, MMPI, structured personality test, nomothetic, idiographic, psychic determinism, lexical approach, face validity, empirical test construction, social psychology, attribution, fundamental attribution error, conformity, Asch, obedience, Milgram, groupthink, group polarisation, deindividuation, social loafing, social facilitation, bystander effect, diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance, cognitive dissonance, self-perception theory, impression management, foot in the door, door in the face, low-ball technique, prejudice, discrimination, stereotype, in-group bias, out-group homogeneity, scapegoat hypothesis, just-world hypothesis, jigsaw classroom, inoculation effect, altruism, catharsis, adaptive conservatism