Difficulty: Introductory | Prerequisites: Basic neuroscience (hippocampus, acetylcholine)
Memory is one of the most heavily tested topics on the PSYCH 1100 final. This unit covers how memories are formed (encoding), maintained (storage), and accessed (retrieval), along with the major models of memory, the types of long-term memory, and the ways memories can fail. Many of the review questions are scenario-based, asking you to identify which memory process or failure is at play. The hippocampus, covered in neuroscience, is central here, and acetylcholine reappears as the neurotransmitter linked to Alzheimer's disease and memory loss.
Memory flows from sensory input through sensory memory, into short-term (working) memory, and finally into long-term memory. Working memory keeps things active through rehearsal; long-term memory stores information as declarative (facts and events) or procedural (skills). Forgetting can result from decay, interference, encoding failures, or motivated forgetting.
Encoding
The process of converting sensory information into a mental representation that can be stored in memory. When Jamie sees snow for the first time and converts the visual experience into a concept, that is encoding.
In simple terms, encoding is how your brain writes information down in the first place.
Storage
The process of maintaining encoded information in memory over time.
Retrieval
The process of accessing stored information when you need it.
Atkinson-Shiffrin model
The classic three-stage model of memory: sensory input → sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory.
In simple terms, information flows through three bins, and at each stage it either moves on or is lost.
Sensory memory
A brief, large-capacity store that holds raw sensory input for a fraction of a second (iconic memory for visual, echoic memory for auditory). Key features: large capacity, brief duration, separate channels for different sensory types.
The visuospatial scratchpad is NOT a feature of sensory memory (it is a component of working memory).
Short-term memory (STM)
A limited-capacity store that holds information for about 20 to 30 seconds unless actively maintained. Capacity is roughly 7 ± 2 items.
Working memory
An updated model of STM that includes active processing. When Lee keeps consciously thinking about a term he is trying to learn, he is using his working memory.
Components include:
Phonological loop: handles verbal and auditory information. When Jordan repeats a phone number in her head, she is using the phonological loop.
Visuospatial sketchpad: handles visual and spatial information.
Episodic buffer: integrates information from different sources.
Rehearsal
Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory. Sally repeating a message in her head until she finds her roommate is using rehearsal (also called maintenance rehearsal).
Declarative memory (explicit)
Long-term memory for facts and events that can be consciously recalled. When you study and recall facts from your textbook, you are using declarative memory.
Splits into:
Semantic memory: memory for general knowledge and facts (e.g. important dates of World War II, presidents of the United States).
Episodic memory: memory for personal experiences tied to specific times and places.
Autobiographical memory: a subtype of episodic memory involving your own life narrative.
Procedural memory (implicit/non-declarative)
Memory for how to do things, skills and habits. Riding a bike is procedural memory.
Flashbulb memory
A vivid, detailed memory of a surprising or emotionally significant event (e.g. remembering where you were during 9/11). Despite feeling vivid, flashbulb memories are not always accurate.
Levels of processing
The idea that deeper, more meaningful processing leads to better memory. Colleen remembers parts of a lecture that applied to her own past relationships because she processed them at a deeper level (personal relevance).
Encoding specificity
The principle that memory retrieval is most effective when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding. Gerald always eats breakfast before his 8 AM class, and when he skips breakfast on exam day, his altered context makes retrieval harder.
Context-dependent learning
A specific form of encoding specificity: you recall information better when you are in the same environment where you learned it. Jessie studied for psychology in a quiet library (matching the quiet exam room) and performed better than when she studied sociology in a noisy dorm.
Schema
A mental framework that helps organise and interpret information. Schemas can fill in gaps but also lead to errors: by using a schema, inconsistent details are more likely to be left out.
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
The increase (not decrease) of communication between two neurons resulting from repeated activation. This is the neural basis of learning and memory.
Retroactive interference
New information interferes with the retrieval of old information. Sasha learns the new Facebook design and can no longer remember the old one. Leigh studied Italian in college and now Italian words intrude when she tries to write in French.
Wait: Leigh's situation is actually proactive interference if old learning (Italian, learned later, but the question says French first then Italian). Let me be precise: Leigh studied French first (high school) then Italian (college). When writing in French, Italian words intrude. The newer learning (Italian) is interfering with retrieval of the older learning (French). That is retroactive interference.
Proactive interference
Old information interferes with the retrieval of new information. Previously learned material makes it harder to learn or remember new material.
Motivated forgetting
Forgetting that occurs because the memory is unpleasant or unwanted. Kevin "forgetting" to send his quarterly check to his ex-wife (an annoying obligation) is motivated forgetting. Mike "forgetting" a paper's due date when he had not studied is also motivated forgetting.
Decay
The gradual fading of a memory over time due to lack of use. Grandpa forgetting things from long ago because his ability to retrieve unused information is fading over time.
Confabulation
Producing false memories without the intention to deceive; filling gaps in memory with fabricated details.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
The feeling of knowing something but being temporarily unable to retrieve it.
The correct flow of information:
Sensory input → sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory
Any other ordering is incorrect.
Large capacity
Brief duration
Separate channels for different sensory types (iconic for vision, echoic for hearing)
The visuospatial scratchpad is NOT a feature of sensory memory. It belongs to working memory.
Rehearsal (maintenance rehearsal): repeating information over and over (Sally with the message, Shelly with the phone number).
The phonological loop is the specific working-memory component used when you repeat verbal information (Jordan repeating digits).
Declarative (explicit): you can talk about it
Semantic: facts and general knowledge (WWII dates, presidents)
Episodic: personal events in time and place
Non-declarative (implicit): you show it through performance
Procedural: skills and habits (riding a bike)
Decay: information fades over time without use.
Retroactive interference: new learning disrupts old (new Facebook design replaces memory of old one; Italian words intrude when writing French).
Proactive interference: old learning disrupts new.
Motivated forgetting: you unconsciously forget unpleasant things (Kevin and the alimony check).
Encoding specificity failure: mismatch between encoding and retrieval contexts (Gerald skipping breakfast before the exam).
Billy is an eyewitness to a robbery and is confident in his memory. Should his testimony alone support a conviction? No. Regardless of confidence, emotional memories can be distorted or suppressed (motivated forgetting). Flashbulb memories feel vivid but are not always accurate.
Effective strategies: reciting out loud, using mnemonics, distributing practice over time.
Ineffective strategy: cramming the night before. Cramming is the answer when asked "which will NOT help you ace the exam?"
Students confuse retroactive and proactive interference. Retroactive = new disrupts old (think "retro" = going back to mess with the past). Proactive = old disrupts new (old material "reaches forward" to interfere).
The visuospatial sketchpad is part of working memory, not sensory memory. This is a common trick answer.
Long-term potentiation is an increase in neural communication, not a decrease. The exam includes a true/false question that states it is a decrease (the answer is false).
Flashbulb memories feel extremely vivid and certain, but they are not perfectly accurate. Confidence does not equal accuracy.
Schemas make inconsistent details more likely to be left out, not less likely.
⚠️ The Atkinson-Shiffrin flow (sensory input → sensory memory → STM → LTM) is tested directly.
⚠️ Rehearsal, the phonological loop, and working memory all appear in phone-number scenarios. Know which term fits which question.
⚠️ Semantic memory = facts (WWII dates). Procedural memory = skills (riding a bike). Declarative = facts you can recall while studying.
⚠️ Retroactive interference: the Facebook redesign question and the French/Italian question.
⚠️ Motivated forgetting: Kevin and the alimony check, Mike and the paper due date.
⚠️ Encoding specificity: Gerald skipping breakfast. Context-dependent learning: Jessie studying in different environments.
⚠️ Cramming the night before is the strategy that will NOT help you ace the exam.
⚠️ LTP is an increase, not a decrease. The true/false question on this is false.
⚠️ Eyewitness testimony should not be trusted as the sole basis for conviction.
Fill in the blank: The correct flow in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model is sensory input → __________ → short-term memory → long-term memory. Sensory memory.
True or False: The visuospatial sketchpad is a feature of sensory memory. False. It is a component of working memory.
Fill in the blank: New information interfering with old information is called __________ interference. Retroactive.
True or False: Long-term potentiation is a decrease in communication between neurons. False. It is an increase.
Fill in the blank: Riding a bike is an example of __________ memory. Procedural.
Q: Sasha cannot remember the old Facebook design after using the new one for a week. What type of memory failure is this?
A: Retroactive interference. The new information (updated design) has interfered with retrieval of the old information (previous design).
Q: Joe is memorising WWII dates for a history exam. What type of memory is he using?
A: Semantic memory. Dates and facts constitute general knowledge, which is stored in semantic (declarative) memory.
Q: Gerald always eats breakfast before his 8 AM class but skips it on exam day. He performs poorly. What explains his memory failure?
A: Encoding specificity. The mismatch between his encoding context (with breakfast) and his retrieval context (without breakfast) impaired his recall.
Q: Kevin keeps forgetting to send the alimony check to his ex-wife, even though he knows the due date. What is this an example of?
A: Motivated forgetting. The task is emotionally unpleasant, and his memory conveniently fails around it.
Q: Which study strategy will NOT help you ace the exam: reciting out loud, using mnemonics, distributing practice, or cramming the night before?
A: Cramming the night before. Distributed practice is far more effective for long-term retention.
The hippocampus (Neuroscience unit) is the structure responsible for encoding new long-term memories. Damage to it explains why patients like H.M. could not form new memories.
Acetylcholine (Neuroscience unit) is the neurotransmitter most closely linked to memory. Drugs that boost acetylcholine production may help Alzheimer's patients.
Sleep (Consciousness unit) plays a direct role in memory consolidation: N-REM sleep transforms short-term memories into long-term ones.
Schemas connect to the Development unit (Piaget's assimilation and accommodation) and to the Learning unit (how prior knowledge shapes new learning).
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