Source: Abnormal Psychology textbook (University of Florida)
Tags: specific learning disorder, dyslexia, dyscalculia, communication disorders, stuttering, speech sound disorder, social communication disorder, Tourette's, tic disorders, developmental coordination disorder, IEP
Difficulty: Intermediate Prerequisites: Understanding of the distinction between intellectual disability and specific skill deficits, basic neuroanatomy (Broca's area, parietotemporal region, occipitotemporal region), and familiarity with the DSM-5.
Learning, communication, and motor disorders involve deficits or abnormalities in specific skills or behaviours, unlike intellectual disability, which involves broad deficits across multiple domains. These conditions are not caused by intellectual disability, developmental delay, neurological disorders, or general external factors such as economic disadvantage. They range from mild to severe, can significantly affect academic and social functioning, and are treated primarily through targeted skill-building therapies. This section also covers tic disorders (including Tourette's), stereotypic movement disorder, and developmental coordination disorder.
Learning, communication, and motor disorders are specific skill deficits (not global cognitive deficits like intellectual disability). They include difficulties with reading, maths, writing, speech, and movement. They have genetic and neurological underpinnings, often co-occur with each other and with ADHD, and are treated through individualised educational plans and targeted therapies.
Specific learning disorder
Deficits in one or more academic skills: reading, written expression, and/or mathematics. The DSM-5 diagnosis is given only when performance in one of these domains is below the expected level as measured by standardised tests. In simple terms, the person has a specific academic weakness that is not explained by general intellectual ability.
Dyslexia
Difficulties in reading, including poor word-reading accuracy, slow reading rate, and reading comprehension weaknesses. This is the most common specific learning disorder and is usually apparent by the 4th grade. More common in boys.
Language disorder
Difficulties with spoken, written, and other language modalities, including problems with vocabulary, grammar, narrative, and other pragmatic language abilities.
Speech sound disorder
Persistent difficulties in producing speech. The person may substitute one sound for another or omit certain sounds, resulting in speech that sounds like baby talk.
Childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering)
Trouble speaking evenly and fluently, with frequent repetition of sounds, syllables, or short phrases. Usually begins gradually before age 10, worsens under pressure, and most children recover by age 16.
Social communication disorder
Deficits in using verbal and nonverbal communication for social purposes in a way that is appropriate for the social context. This diagnosis can only be given if the deficits are not better explained by autism (i.e. the child does not show restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour).
Tourette's disorder
A tic disorder involving multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic that have persisted for more than a year. Some individuals have a complex form involving involuntary obscenities. More debilitating and more often comorbid with other disorders than persistent motor or vocal tic disorder.
Persistent motor or vocal tic disorder (PMVTD)
A tic disorder involving only motor tics or only vocal tics (not both). Individuals often experience a premonition and urge just before the tic occurs, and the urge is temporarily reduced by performing the tic.
Tic
A sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic motor movement or vocalisation. Motor tics include jerking the head; vocal tics include any noise or sound.
Stereotypic movement disorder
Repetitive, seemingly driven, and apparently purposeless motor behaviour. Differs from tics in that the person may continue the behaviour for an extended period. Often seen in people with autism, ID, or ADHD.
Habit reversal therapy
A behavioural therapy for tic and stereotypic movement disorders. Triggers and signs of impending tics or stereotypic behaviours are identified, and the client is taught to engage in a competing behaviour with positive results.
Developmental coordination disorder
A motor disorder involving fundamental deficits in the development of basic motor skills and fine motor skills used in writing, cutting, or colouring. Not due to medical conditions such as muscular dystrophy. More common in boys, often comorbid with ADHD, and treated with physical or occupational therapy.
Individualized education plan (IEP)
A comprehensive plan bundling interventions for a child with a learning or communication disorder, as mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. It describes specific skill deficits identified through formal testing and observations, and involves parents and teachers in strategies to overcome those deficits.
Deficits in reading, written expression, and/or mathematics.
Distinct from intellectual disability: these are specific skill deficits, not broad cognitive impairment.
Not caused by intellectual disability, developmental delay, neurological disorders, or socioeconomic disadvantage.
Reading (dyslexia):
Most common specific learning disorder
Includes poor word-reading accuracy, slow reading rate, and comprehension weaknesses
Usually evident by the 4th grade
More common in boys
Mathematics:
Problems understanding mathematical terms, recognising numerical symbols, clustering objects, counting, mastering maths facts, and understanding mathematical principles
Deficits severe enough to warrant diagnosis are seen in about 1% of the population
Written expression:
Significant weakness in spelling, sentence and paragraph construction, grammar, and punctuation
Impact:
Children with learning difficulties often struggle with low academic performance or must exert extraordinary effort for average grades
They may become demoralised or disruptive in class
High risk of dropping out if untreated
As adults, they may have problems getting or keeping jobs and often avoid activities requiring reading, arithmetic, or writing
Emotional side effects can also affect social relationships
Involve persistent difficulties in acquiring and using language and other means of communication.
Language disorder: problems with vocabulary, grammar, narrative, and pragmatic language abilities across spoken, written, and other modalities.
Speech sound disorder: persistent difficulties producing speech sounds appropriate for age or dialect. Words may sound like baby talk.
Childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering):
Frequent repetition of sounds, syllables, or short phrases
Severity varies but typically worsens under pressure
Usually begins gradually, almost always before age 10
Most children recover by age 16, though some continue into adulthood
Can lower self-esteem and limit goals and activities
Social communication disorder:
Difficulty using verbal and nonverbal communication appropriately for the social context
Difficulty changing communication to match the listener's needs, following conversational rules, and storytelling
Social participation and relationships are often impaired
Can only be diagnosed if deficits are not better explained by autism (no restricted/repetitive patterns of behaviour)
Genetic factors are implicated in all learning and communication disorders. No single gene is responsible, but genetic abnormalities contribute.
Brain structure and functioning abnormalities:
Broca's area (ability to articulate and analyse words)
Parietotemporal region (mapping visual perception of printed words onto language structure)
Occipitotemporal region (rapid, automatic, fluent word identification)
Dyslexia may result from abnormalities in the latter two areas
Environmental factors: lead poisoning, birth defects, sensory deprivation, and low socioeconomic status increase the risk of damage to critical brain areas or make it harder to overcome biological contributors to learning problems.
Therapies are designed to build the missing skill.
Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, interventions are bundled in a child's individualised education plan (IEP), which describes specific skill deficits and involves parents and teachers in strategies to address them.
Computer exercises can help children with certain learning disorders build skills.
Specialised instruction to overcome deficits has been shown to improve brain functioning.
Tic disorders (Tourette's and PMVTD) are common.
A tic is a sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic motor movement or vocalisation.
Tourette's involves multiple motor tics plus at least one vocal tic persisting for more than a year. Some have a complex form involving involuntary obscenities. More debilitating and more often comorbid with other disorders.
PMVTD involves only motor or only vocal tics (not both). Individuals often feel a premonition and urge before the tic, which is temporarily relieved by performing it.
Tic frequency increases under stress or when the person lacks alternative activities.
Stereotypic movement disorder: repetitive, driven, purposeless motor behaviour. Differs from tics in duration (may continue for an extended period). Often co-occurs with autism, ID, or ADHD.
All three motor disorders:
Begin in childhood, increase in adolescence, then decline in adulthood
Highly comorbid with OCD and share common causes
Co-occur in families and may share genetic factors
Associated with dopamine system dysfunctions in the cerebrum, basal ganglia, and frontal cortex
Treatable with habit reversal therapy (identifying triggers and learning competing behaviours)
Tourette's and PMVTD also respond to medications that regulate dopamine (atypical antipsychotics)
Developmental coordination disorder:
Deficits in basic and fine motor skills (writing, cutting, colouring)
Not due to medical conditions like muscular dystrophy
More common in boys
Can cause moderate-to-severe distress and dysfunction
Often comorbid with ADHD
Treated with physical or occupational therapy
Causes unknown
Learning disorders directly affect academic outcomes and career prospects. The IEP framework is a practical tool that education professionals use daily. Tic disorders (especially Tourette's) affect social functioning and self-esteem, and understanding that they are neurological conditions with effective treatments helps reduce stigma.
Students often conflate learning disorders with intellectual disability. Learning disorders are specific to one or more academic skills, while intellectual disability involves broad deficits across cognitive and adaptive domains.
Students sometimes think stuttering is a sign of anxiety or nervousness. Childhood-onset fluency disorder is a communication disorder with neurological underpinnings, not simply a stress response (though stress does worsen it).
Students may assume Tourette's always involves shouting obscenities. This is a complex form that occurs in only some individuals; most people with Tourette's have motor and vocal tics without coprolalia.
Students sometimes confuse social communication disorder with autism. The key distinction is that social communication disorder does not involve restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour.
⚠️ Know the distinction between learning disorders (specific skill deficits) and intellectual disability (broad deficits across domains).
⚠️ Dyslexia is the most common specific learning disorder, usually evident by 4th grade, and more common in boys.
⚠️ Social communication disorder versus autism: know that SCD can only be diagnosed if there are no restricted/repetitive behaviours.
⚠️ Tourette's versus PMVTD: Tourette's requires both motor and vocal tics; PMVTD requires only one type.
⚠️ All three motor disorders share links to dopamine dysfunction, OCD comorbidity, and familial co-occurrence.
⚠️ The IEP framework under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is a commonly tested practical application.
True or False: Learning disorders are a type of intellectual disability.
Fill in the blank: ___ is the most common specific learning disorder.
True or False: Social communication disorder can be diagnosed even if the child shows restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour.
Fill in the blank: Tourette's disorder requires both motor and ___ tics persisting for more than a year.
True or False: Habit reversal therapy is used to treat tic disorders.
Answers: 1. False (specific skill deficits, not broad intellectual impairment). 2. Dyslexia. 3. False (must rule out autism first). 4. Vocal. 5. True.
Q: How do learning disorders differ from intellectual disability?
A: Learning disorders involve deficits in specific academic skills (reading, writing, maths) while intellectual disability involves broad deficits across conceptual, social, and practical domains. Learning disorders are not caused by intellectual disability, developmental delay, or neurological disorders.
Q: What brain regions are implicated in dyslexia, and what functions do they serve?
A: The parietotemporal region (mapping visual perception of printed words onto language structure) and the occipitotemporal region (rapid, automatic, fluent word identification). Abnormalities in these two areas may underlie dyslexia.
Q: What distinguishes Tourette's disorder from persistent motor or vocal tic disorder?
A: Tourette's requires multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic persisting for more than a year. PMVTD involves only motor tics or only vocal tics (not both). Tourette's is more debilitating and more often comorbid with other disorders.
Q: What is an IEP, and what legislation mandates it?
A: An individualised education plan is a comprehensive plan that describes a child's specific skill deficits (identified through formal testing and teacher/parent observations) and involves parents and teachers in targeted strategies to address those deficits. It is mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Q: How does social communication disorder differ from autism spectrum disorder?
A: Both involve deficits in social communication. However, social communication disorder can only be diagnosed if the child does not show restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities. If those behaviours are present, the appropriate diagnosis is autism spectrum disorder.
Learning disorders connect to ADHD because 20–25% of children with ADHD also have a specific learning disorder, compounding academic difficulties. Motor disorders connect to OCD through shared dopamine-system dysfunction and high comorbidity. The neuroanatomy of language processing (Broca's area, parietotemporal region, occipitotemporal region) connects to broader neuroscience topics in the course.
Specific learning disorder, dyslexia, dyscalculia, written expression, communication disorder, language disorder, speech sound disorder, stuttering, childhood-onset fluency disorder, social communication disorder, Tourette's disorder, persistent motor or vocal tic disorder, PMVTD, tic, stereotypic movement disorder, developmental coordination disorder, habit reversal therapy, IEP, individualized education plan, Broca's area, parietotemporal region, occipitotemporal region, dopamine, OCD, basal ganglia