Difficulty: Introductory to Intermediate. Prerequisites: Basic familiarity with infant cognitive development (Piaget's sensorimotor stages) and attachment theory.
This material covers how infants and toddlers move from pre-verbal signals to genuine spoken language during roughly the first two years of life. It sits within PSY 3215's broader focus on child development, bridging earlier work on sensorimotor cognition with later modules on socialisation and emotion. You should already be comfortable with Piaget's stages (particularly the sensorimotor period) and with the basics of caregiver-infant interaction. If terms like "object permanence" or "attachment" feel unfamiliar, revisit those notes first.
Infants progress from idiosyncratic, made-up signals to conventional words and simple sentences ("formulas" and telegraphic speech) by roughly 18 to 24 months. Two broad styles emerge early: referential speakers favour precise object labels, while expressive speakers prioritise social phrases. Understanding these distinctions, plus the role of syntax and symbols, is central to exam questions on early language.
Syntax
The structure or grammar of a language, specifically the rules that determine word order. Think of it as the invisible blueprint that tells you "the dog bit the man" means something different from "the man bit the dog."
Conventional communication
A communicative act, such as a word, that is used and understood by all members of the same speaking community. In simple terms, it is any signal whose meaning does not need a personal interpreter, because everyone in that language group shares it.
Idiosyncratic communication
A form of communication that the individual makes up, requiring a familiar adult to interpret its meaning. Think of it as a baby's personal code: a specific grunt or gesture that only their regular caregiver recognises.
Expressive speech
Speech that is socially oriented and uses more, but less clearly articulated, words per utterance. In simple terms, these are the children who talk a lot and focus on social phrases ("go away," "I want it") rather than precise labels.
Referential speech
Speech that is object-oriented and contains a few, but clearly articulated, words per utterance. Think of it as the labelling style: these children name things precisely ("ball," "cup," "dog") rather than stringing social phrases together.
Telegraphic speech
Speech having two or more words per utterance but with endings and connecting words left out. In simple terms, it sounds like a telegram: "Daddy go" instead of "Daddy is going."
Formulas
Flexible word orders that make up the first sentences of infants, not the same as mature grammar. Think of it as early, loose sentence-building: the child is combining words, but the rules are not yet fixed.
Symbol
A representation of a thing or event that is conventionally shared among members of a community. In simple terms, a symbol is anything (a word, a gesture, an image) that stands for something else and is understood the same way by a group of people.
Infants begin with idiosyncratic communication: personal, invented signals (a particular cry, a made-up gesture) that only a familiar caregiver can decode.
Over time, these shift to conventional communication: shared words and gestures that any member of the language community understands.
This transition is a cornerstone of early language development and is often tested in terms of knowing the difference between the two.
Referential speakers use fewer words per utterance, but each word is clearly articulated and object-focused (naming things).
Expressive speakers produce more words per utterance, socially oriented phrases, but with less precise articulation.
These are tendencies, not rigid categories. Most children lean one way but show elements of both.
Telegraphic speech appears when children begin combining two or more words, leaving out function words and endings ("Mummy shoe" for "Mummy, that's your shoe").
Formulas are the flexible, loose word orders that characterise these first multi-word utterances. They are not yet governed by the full rules of adult syntax.
Mature syntax, where word order follows consistent grammatical rules, develops gradually from these early combinations.
A symbol is any representation (word, image, gesture) whose meaning is shared by a community.
The capacity to use symbols marks a cognitive leap: the child understands that one thing can stand for another.
This ability underpins not just language but also pretend play, drawing, and later abstract thought.
"Telegraphic speech means the child has poor language skills." It does not. Telegraphic speech is a normal developmental stage, not a deficit. Nearly all children pass through it.
"Referential and expressive are either/or categories." They are tendencies on a spectrum. A child labelled "referential" will still use some social phrases, and vice versa.
"Idiosyncratic communication is a sign of delay." All infants use idiosyncratic signals before they acquire conventional language. It is the expected starting point, not a red flag.
"Formulas are grammatically correct sentences." They are not. Formulas are early, loosely ordered word combinations that precede the acquisition of true syntactic rules.
⚠️ Be able to distinguish idiosyncratic from conventional communication with an example of each.
⚠️ Know the difference between referential and expressive speech styles, and be ready to identify which style a scenario describes.
⚠️ Understand that telegraphic speech and formulas are normal developmental stages, not errors.
⚠️ Be prepared to define syntax and explain how it differs from the loose word orders seen in formulas.
True or False: Telegraphic speech is a sign of language delay. (False, it is a normal stage.)
Fill in the blank: A child who says "ball" and "cup" clearly but speaks few words per utterance is showing a ______ speech style. (referential)
True or False: Idiosyncratic communication can be understood by any adult, not just the caregiver. (False, only a familiar adult can interpret it.)
Fill in the blank: The rules governing word order in a language are collectively called ______. (syntax)
True or False: Formulas follow the same grammatical rules as adult sentences. (False, they use flexible, loose word orders.)
Q: A toddler says "doggie go" when the family pet leaves the room. What type of speech is this an example of, and why?
A: Telegraphic speech. The child combines two words but omits the function words ("the doggie is going"), which is characteristic of this stage.
Q: How does idiosyncratic communication differ from conventional communication? Give one example of each.
A: Idiosyncratic communication is invented by the individual and understood only by a familiar caregiver (e.g., a specific whine that means "pick me up"). Conventional communication uses shared signals understood by anyone in the language community (e.g., saying the word "up").
Q: A researcher observes that Child A uses many social phrases ("go away," "want that") but articulates them loosely, while Child B uses fewer words but labels objects precisely ("truck," "apple"). Which speech style does each child exhibit?
A: Child A exhibits expressive speech (socially oriented, more words, less clear articulation). Child B exhibits referential speech (object-oriented, fewer but clearly articulated words).
Q: What are formulas in infant language, and how do they differ from mature syntax?
A: Formulas are the flexible, loosely ordered word combinations that make up infants' first multi-word utterances. Unlike mature syntax, they do not follow consistent grammatical rules for word order.
Q: Why is the ability to use symbols considered a major cognitive milestone?
A: Because it shows the child understands that one thing (a word, gesture, or image) can stand for something else. This capacity underpins language, pretend play, and eventually abstract reasoning.
This material connects directly to Piaget's sensorimotor stages, particularly the transition from pre-representational to symbolic thought. The emergence of symbols in language parallels the onset of pretend play (covered in later developmental modules). Understanding referential vs. expressive styles also links to research on individual differences in temperament and socialisation.
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