Difficulty: Introductory | Prerequisites: Basic neuroscience, memory concepts
This unit spans Piaget's stages of cognitive development, Erikson's psychosocial stages, Kohlberg's stages of moral development, attachment theory, parenting styles, Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, and infant sensory capabilities. It is scenario-heavy on the exam: you will be given a description of a child's behaviour and asked to identify the stage, attachment style, or parenting approach. The key is knowing the defining features and limitations of each stage.
Children progress through distinct cognitive stages (Piaget), each with specific abilities and limitations. Social development depends on the quality of early attachment (Ainsworth) and parenting style. Moral reasoning develops through stages (Kohlberg) from self-interest to universal ethical principles. Erikson's psychosocial stages span the entire lifespan.
Object permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. Angela looking behind the couch for her hidden brother demonstrates object permanence.
In simple terms, a baby who cries when a toy is hidden behind a blanket has developed object permanence.
Egocentrism
The inability to see things from another person's perspective. Angela says she has a sister, but says her sister does not have a sister. A child who does not understand that a doll across the table sees a different view is egocentric.
Conservation
The understanding that the quantity of a substance remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. A child who thinks water poured into a taller glass is "more" has not yet achieved conservation.
Theory of mind (TOM)
The ability to understand that other people have thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge different from your own. A child without TOM will expect Zach to look for the truck where Cader moved it (under the bed), because the child cannot distinguish between what they know and what Zach knows.
Assimilation
Fitting new information into an existing schema. A toddler who sees a deer for the first time and calls it a "horsey" (using her horse schema) is assimilating.
Accommodation
Modifying an existing schema or creating a new one to incorporate new information that does not fit the old schema.
Zone of proximal development (Vygotsky)
The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help. Julia can jump rope when friends swing the rope for her but not alone. This is best explained by Vygotsky's theory.
Sensorimotor stage (birth to ~2 years)
Explores through moving and sensing.
"Here and now" thinking.
Develops object permanence.
Does NOT exhibit illogical reasoning (that belongs to the preoperational stage).
Wendy (age 1) will NOT exhibit illogical reasoning; she will exhibit the other sensorimotor features.
Preoperational stage (~2 to 7 years)
Egocentrism: cannot take another person's perspective.
Lacks conservation (the water glass task).
Lacks logical reasoning.
Angela's sister question and the doll-across-the-table scenario both illustrate preoperational thinking.
A child who fails the conservation task is preoperational.
Concrete operational stage (~7 to 11 years)
Can think logically about concrete events.
Achieves conservation, theory of mind, and object permanence.
Cannot yet handle abstract or hypothetical reasoning.
Lacey has object permanence, TOM, and conservation but cannot answer hypothetical questions = concrete operational.
Timmy can think logically but not abstractly = concrete operational.
Formal operational stage (~12 years and up)
Abstract and hypothetical reasoning.
Can answer questions like "What would happen if the world had unlimited money?"
A child without TOM cannot understand that another person has different knowledge.
In the toy-truck scenario: Cader moves the truck while Zach is away. A child without TOM expects Zach to look under the bed (where Cader moved it), because the child assumes Zach knows what they know.
A child with TOM would correctly predict Zach will look in the toy box (where Zach last saw it).
Secure attachment
Distressed when caregiver leaves, happy when they return.
Uses caregiver as a secure base for exploration.
Mary does not cry when her mum leaves and allows a stranger to comfort her = this is actually more consistent with secure attachment in the question's framing (comfortable with separation, easily comforted).
Avoidant attachment
Shows little distress when caregiver leaves.
Ignores or avoids caregiver upon return.
Donny calms down and completely ignores his mother when she returns = avoidant.
Baby Julia shows little interest when mum leaves, soothed equally by mum and strangers = insecure avoidant.
Anxious-ambivalent attachment
Very distressed when caregiver leaves.
Clingy but also resistant (angry) upon return.
Christy is agitated when mum leaves, cannot be comforted, but is clingy to caretakers and does not want to go to her mother at pickup = anxious-ambivalent.
Disorganized attachment
Inconsistent, confused behaviour, a mix of approach and avoidance.
Authoritative
High warmth + high control.
Sets clear rules but is responsive and supportive.
Strict household but attentive when child needs help with homework = authoritative.
Authoritarian
Low warmth + high control.
Strict rules, little warmth or flexibility.
Research suggests authoritarian parenting in China results in lower rates of antisocial behaviour than in the U.S. (the statement that it results in higher rates is false).
Indulgent (permissive)
High warmth + low control.
Very supportive, few rules.
Jerry's parents let him do whatever he wants, no rules, never in trouble = indulgent.
Parents who give lots of support but few rules = indulgent.
Uninvolved (neglectful)
Low warmth + low control.
Sean's parents (the homework scenario)
Want him to do well but avoid enforcing rules themselves; ask the teacher to handle it instead = indulgent. They show warmth but avoid setting boundaries.
Preconventional morality
Moral reasoning based on self-interest and consequences.
"What's in it for me?" or "Will I get punished?"
Conventional morality
Moral reasoning based on social approval and following rules.
Miguel decides not to cheat because he does not want to be viewed as a "cheater" by his peers = conventional. (Note: when he decides not to cheat because he believes it is the wrong thing to do, that is postconventional.)
Postconventional morality
Moral reasoning based on individual ethical principles that may transcend social rules.
Believing it can be moral to impersonate someone to protect them = postconventional.
Kylie's parents letting her have a beer because they believe responsible supervised drinking is acceptable despite the law = postconventional.
Traits: differing values, individual moral principles.
Key stages tested on this exam:
Trust vs. mistrust: Infancy.
Initiative vs. guilt: Preschool age.
Identity vs. role confusion: Adolescence. Kady (new high school student figuring out friendships) is in this stage.
Intimacy vs. isolation: Young adulthood. Andre (27, recently married) is in this stage.
Generativity vs. stagnation: Middle adulthood.
The central theme of Erikson's theory is the development of ego identity, with each stage presenting a psychosocial conflict that shapes identity.
Infants require more visual contrast than adults (true).
Infants can see fewer colours than adults (true).
Infants' sense of smell is NOT nonexistent.
Infants can hear a broader frequency of sounds than adults (true).
High extraversion: likes to explore surroundings in new places (Billy).
High reactivity: associated with introversion and neuroticism in the Big Five.
Genes affect behaviour by contributing to the nervous system (not by directly causing complex behaviours).
A heritability coefficient of .4 does NOT mean 40% of an individual's trait comes from genetics. It means 40% of the variation in that trait across a population is attributable to genetic differences. The individual-level statement is false.
Heritability coefficients reflect heritable influences within populations, not individuals, twin pairs, or families.
Concordance rates help predict the likelihood of a trait occurring in offspring by looking at population data.
Students confuse concrete operational with formal operational. If the child can think logically but not abstractly, they are concrete operational. Formal operational requires abstract, hypothetical reasoning.
Egocentrism is not selfishness. It is the cognitive inability to see from another's perspective.
Theory of mind is about understanding others' beliefs, not just their feelings. A child without TOM assumes everyone knows what they know.
A heritability coefficient describes population-level variation, not individual-level causation. A heritability of .4 does not mean "40% of your height is genetic."
Authoritative and authoritarian sound similar but are very different. Authoritative = warm and structured. Authoritarian = strict and cold.
⚠️ The toy-truck TOM question appears at least three times. Know it cold: a child without TOM expects Zach to look where the truck actually is (under the bed), not where Zach last saw it.
⚠️ Conservation failure = preoperational stage (water glass scenario).
⚠️ Angela's sister question = egocentrism = preoperational.
⚠️ Vygotsky (not Piaget) explains what a child can do with help vs. alone.
⚠️ Kohlberg: "wrong thing to do" (personal ethics) = postconventional. "Don't want to be seen as a cheater" (social approval) = conventional.
⚠️ The heritability true/false question is FALSE. It describes population variation, not individual makeup.
⚠️ Sean's parents = indulgent (they avoid setting rules, ask teacher to handle discipline).
⚠️ Authoritarian parenting in China does NOT result in higher antisocial behaviour than in the U.S. (FALSE).
Fill in the blank: A child who cannot take another person's perspective is exhibiting __________. Egocentrism.
True or False: A heritability coefficient of .4 means 40% of an individual's trait comes from genetics. False. It refers to population-level variation.
Fill in the blank: Lacey has conservation and TOM but cannot answer hypothetical questions. She is in the __________ stage. Concrete operational.
True or False: A child without theory of mind will expect Zach to look in the toy box. False. A child without TOM will expect Zach to look under the bed (where the truck actually is).
Fill in the blank: Parents with high warmth and low control have a(n) __________ parenting style. Indulgent (permissive).
Q: A child is shown two identical glasses of water. Water from one is poured into a taller, thinner glass. The child says the tall glass has more. Which stage is the child in?
A: Preoperational. The child has not yet developed conservation, the understanding that quantity is unchanged by a change in shape.
Q: Cader moves a toy truck while Zach is out of the room. A child without TOM expects Zach to look where?
A: Under the bed (where the truck actually is). Without theory of mind, the child cannot distinguish between their own knowledge and Zach's knowledge.
Q: Miguel decides not to cheat because he does not want peers to see him as a cheater. Which of Kohlberg's stages is he in?
A: Conventional. His moral reasoning is based on social approval and maintaining his reputation among peers.
Q: Andre (age 27) just got married. Which of Erikson's stages is he navigating?
A: Intimacy vs. isolation. Young adulthood centres on forming stable, intimate relationships.
Q: Julia can jump rope when friends swing the rope but not alone. Which theory best explains this?
A: Vygotsky's theory (zone of proximal development). The task is within her capability with assistance but beyond her ability independently.
Piaget's schemas connect to the Memory unit, where schemas influence how we encode, store, and reconstruct information.
Attachment styles relate to personality and social psychology: secure attachment in childhood correlates with healthier adult relationships.
Kohlberg's moral development connects to the Social Psychology unit's discussion of conformity and obedience.
Temperament connects directly to the Personality unit and the Big Five traits.
development, Piaget, sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational, object permanence, egocentrism, conservation, theory of mind, TOM, assimilation, accommodation, Vygotsky, zone of proximal development, scaffolding, Ainsworth, attachment, secure, avoidant, anxious-ambivalent, disorganized, strange situation, parenting styles, authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, permissive, uninvolved, Kohlberg, preconventional, conventional, postconventional, moral development, Erikson, psychosocial stages, trust vs mistrust, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, initiative vs guilt, generativity vs stagnation, heritability, concordance rates, temperament, infant development, PSYCH 1100, general psychology, Ohio State