Difficulty: Introductory to Intermediate | Prerequisites: "What Is Social Psychology" and "Research Methods" notes
Research ethics in social psychology centre on informed consent, the right to privacy, careful use of deception, and debriefing participants afterwards. The field's theoretical foundations draw on behaviourism, Gestalt psychology, cognitive approaches, social neuroscience, and collectivist theories, each offering a different level of explanation. Historically, social psychology grew from nineteenth-century ideas about the "group mind," through early experiments on social facilitation, to the post-war boom in experimental work led by figures such as Kurt Lewin.
Informed consent
The ethical requirement that participants are not manipulated or coerced into taking part in a study. They must understand what participation involves before agreeing. Think of it as making sure people know what they are signing up for.
Debriefing
Giving participants a full explanation of what the experiment was about after it has concluded. This is especially important when deception has been used.
Deception (in research)
Withholding information or misleading participants about the true purpose of a study. Ethical guidelines require that deception be justified, minimised, and followed by thorough debriefing.
Grand theories
Broad theoretical frameworks that furnish a general perspective on an entire discipline. Examples include evolutionary theory and general relativity theory. In simple terms, these are the big-picture lenses through which a field views the world.
Behaviourism
A theoretical perspective that explains behaviour through observable stimulus-response relationships and reinforcement. It has been the basis for social exchange theory, social modelling, the reinforcement-affect model, and drive theory.
Gestalt psychology
An early twentieth-century German school of thought emphasising that the whole of an experience is more than the sum of its parts. Its influence on social psychology is evident in cognitive theories.
Social neuroscience
The study of how biological processes in the brain underlie social psychological phenomena. It arose from the general idea that we are biological entities and that psychology happens in the brain.
Collectivist theories
Theories proposing that people behave based on socially constructed group norms that influence us in specific contexts. They emphasise the social group rather than the individual as the unit of analysis.
Positivism
The philosophical position that the scientific method is the one way to achieve true knowledge. In simple terms, a positivist believes that if you cannot test it scientifically, you cannot know it.
Reductionism
Explaining complex phenomena purely in terms of simpler, lower-level processes (e.g. explaining emotions entirely through physiology). The concern is that something important about the social level of analysis may be lost.
Operational definition
The requirement that theoretical terms be defined in a way that allows them to be measured. For example, defining "aggression" as the number of times a participant presses a button that delivers a loud noise to another person.
Levels of explanation
The idea that social behaviour can be explained at different levels. An intrapersonal level looks at individual psychological processes. An interpersonal level examines interactions between individuals within a given environment. Higher levels consider positional factors, group processes, and societal influences.
Social facilitation
The tendency for people to perform differently in the presence of others compared to when alone. Triplett's nineteenth-century experiment on cyclists was the forerunner to this research area.
The right to privacy, informed consent, and the use of deception are three of several ethical principles that guide psychological research
There is no agreed basis for ranking ethical principles in descending order of importance
Informed consent ensures people are not manipulated or coerced into participating
Debriefing means giving participants a full explanation of the experiment after it concludes
Milgram's obedience experiment is a key case study in research ethics. Participants were asked to deliver shocks to another person (who was not receiving real shocks) without being told the shocks were fake. The study highlights the need to obtain informed consent and to debrief participants thoroughly
Types of theory:
Grand theories furnish a general perspective on a discipline (e.g. evolutionary theory, general relativity). They sit at the broadest level
Theories in social psychology operate at different levels of specificity, from broad metatheories down to short-range mini-theories that address specific phenomena
Major theoretical traditions:
Behaviourism gave rise to social exchange theory, social modelling, the reinforcement-affect model, and drive theory
Gestalt psychology (early twentieth-century Germany) influenced cognitive theories in social psychology
Cognitive approaches dominate modern social psychology, evident in attribution theory and social cognition
Social neuroscience studies how brain processes underlie social behaviour
Collectivist theories propose that behaviour is shaped by socially constructed group norms in specific contexts
Evolutionary social psychology applies evolutionary principles to social behaviour
Key philosophical positions:
Positivism: The scientific method is the way to achieve true knowledge
Reductionism: Explaining complex phenomena purely through simpler, lower-level processes (e.g. John explaining emotional experiences purely through physiology)
Operational definition: Requiring theoretical terms to be defined so they can be measured
Levels of explanation:
Intrapersonal: psychological processes within the individual
Interpersonal: interaction between individuals within a given environment
Positional: influence of social position on interactions
Ideological: influence of social beliefs and group relations
The idea of a social group having a "mind" was derived from the nineteenth-century work of the folk psychologists
Gustave LeBon (over a century ago) proposed that crowds behave badly because people are controlled by a group mind
Norman Triplett (1890s) conducted one of the earliest social psychology experiments, observing that cyclists performed faster in the presence of others. His dynamogenic theory proposed that competitive instinct releases nervous energy. This was the forerunner to research on social facilitation
Floyd Allport, inspired by behaviourist John Watson, argued that social psychology would only flourish if the discipline became an experimental science
Kurt Lewin, often called the "father" of experimental social psychology, founded a research centre for group dynamics
Early landmark experiments include Sherif's work on norm formation, Asch's studies on group pressure, and Festinger and Carlsmith's cognitive dissonance experiment. Note: Tajfel's work on social identity, while enormously influential, was not among the earliest famous experiments
Cognition is emphasised in modern social psychology through attribution theory
As recent immigrant countries that strive to practise multiculturalism, important research areas include ethnicity, culture, and intergroup relations
A notable trend has been the representation of social psychologists on editorial boards and journals
"Milgram's study was completely unethical and should never have been allowed." The study raises serious ethical questions, but the textbook answer focuses on the need for informed consent and debriefing, not a blanket prohibition. The ethical issue is about process, not about banning the research outright
"Ethical principles can be ranked from most to least important." There is no agreed basis for ranking them. Different situations may bring different principles to the fore
"Behaviourism is outdated and no longer relevant to social psychology." Behaviourism remains the foundation of several active theories, including social exchange theory and the reinforcement-affect model
"Tajfel's social identity theory was one of the earliest experiments in social psychology." Social identity theory has been enormously influential, but it was not the basis of one of the earliest famous experiments. The early landmarks are Sherif (norm formation), Asch (group pressure), and Festinger and Carlsmith (cognitive dissonance)
"Positivism and reductionism are the same thing." They are different. Positivism is about the scientific method being the route to knowledge. Reductionism is about explaining complex phenomena through simpler, lower-level processes. A person can hold one position without the other
True or false: Debriefing means telling participants why they cannot discuss the study with others. False – debriefing means giving participants a full explanation of what the experiment was about
Fill in the blank: Evolutionary theory and general relativity are examples of _______ theories. Grand
True or false: Kurt Lewin formulated the theory of cognitive dissonance. False – Lewin founded a research centre for group dynamics. Cognitive dissonance was formulated by Festinger
Fill in the blank: Triplett's experiment on cyclists was the forerunner to research on _______. Social facilitation
True or false: Gestalt psychology's influence on social psychology is most evident in social exchange theory. False – it is most evident in cognitive theories
Q: What does informed consent ensure?
A: That people are not manipulated or coerced into participating in a study. Participants must understand what involvement entails before agreeing.
Q: What ethical issues does Milgram's obedience experiment highlight?
A: The need to obtain informed consent and to debrief participants after the study. Participants believed they were delivering real shocks when they were not.
Q: What theoretical tradition gave rise to social exchange theory, social modelling, the reinforcement-affect model, and drive theory?
A: Behaviourism.
Q: Which school of psychology influenced the development of cognitive theories in social psychology?
A: Gestalt psychology, from early twentieth-century Germany.
Q: What is the difference between positivism and reductionism?
A: Positivism holds that the scientific method is the way to achieve true knowledge. Reductionism is the approach of explaining complex phenomena purely through simpler, lower-level processes. They are related but distinct philosophical positions.
Q: Who is considered the "father" of experimental social psychology, and what did he do?
A: Kurt Lewin. He founded a research centre for group dynamics.
Q: What was Triplett's key finding, and what theory did he propose to explain it?
A: Triplett found that cyclists performed faster in the presence of others than when riding alone. His dynamogenic theory proposed that competitive instinct releases nervous energy.
Q: Which set of theories proposes that people behave based on socially constructed group norms?
A: Collectivist theories.
Q: What research areas are particularly relevant to social psychology in Australia and New Zealand?
A: Ethnicity, culture, and intergroup relations, reflecting both countries' status as recent immigrant societies that strive to practise multiculturalism.
The ethical principles covered here will be revisited whenever the course discusses classic studies that pushed ethical boundaries, particularly Milgram's obedience research (Ch. 7) and Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment.
The theoretical traditions (behaviourism, cognitive, collectivist) recur throughout the course: behaviourism in aggression and attraction, cognitive approaches in attitudes and attribution, and collectivist theories in group processes and intergroup relations.
Triplett's social facilitation finding is explored in depth in the group processes chapters, where Zajonc's drive theory and later distraction-conflict models build on Triplett's original observation.
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