Source: Dewey, Democracy and Education, Ch. 7
Tags: democracy, social structure, political parties, society, community, de jure, de facto, associated living, democratic education, social groups, plurality of societies
Society is not a single unified body but a collection of overlapping groups, from political parties to gangs to corporations. Dewey argues that a democratic society is defined by two features: widely shared interests within groups, and free interaction between groups. Democracy, on this view, is less a form of government and more a mode of associated living.
Society (eulogistic / normative sense)
The idealised conception of society as a unified whole, bound by shared purpose, welfare, loyalty, and mutual sympathy. This is the meaning most commonly used in social philosophy.
Society (descriptive / de facto sense)
The reality on the ground: a plurality of groups, good and bad, including criminal conspiracies, predatory businesses, and political machines held together by self-interest.
Congeries
A disorderly collection or assemblage. Dewey uses this to describe a large city as a loose cluster of associated societies rather than a coherent community.
Democratic society (Deweyan definition)
A society characterised by (1) numerous and varied shared interests recognised within the group, and (2) free and full interaction with other social groups. These two traits together define democratic life.
Associated living / conjoint communicated experience
Dewey's phrase for democracy understood not as a political mechanism but as a way of life in which individuals share experiences and adjust to one another continuously.
Within any political unit there exist political parties, social sets, cliques, gangs, corporations, partnerships, and kinship groups in "endless variety."
Many modern states contain diverse populations with varying languages, religions, moral codes, and traditions.
A large city is often a congeries of loosely associated societies rather than one inclusive community of action and thought.
These terms carry both a normative meaning (how things ought to be) and a descriptive meaning (how things are).
Social philosophy tends to emphasise the normative, idealist picture: unity, shared purpose, mutual sympathy.
Descriptive reality reveals a plurality of groups, some praiseworthy, others exploitative or parasitic.
Criminal conspiracies, predatory business aggregations, and corrupt political machines all count as "societies" in the factual sense.
Shared interests within the group: The more numerous and varied the consciously shared interests, the more democratic the group.
Free interaction between groups: Democratic life requires open interchange with other forms of association, not isolation or insularity.
These two traits produce continuous readjustment of social habits in response to new situations, which is the hallmark of democratic community.
The superficial explanation for democracy's link to education: popular suffrage requires an educated electorate.
The deeper explanation: democracy is primarily a mode of associated living, not merely a governmental form.
A democratic society rejects external authority and must therefore cultivate voluntary disposition and interest through education.
Science, commerce, and art transcend national boundaries and depend on international cooperation.
At the same time, national sovereignty has never been more sharply emphasised, with each nation acting as the supposed supreme judge of its own interests.
This contradiction, between a wider sphere of mutual social life and a narrower sphere of exclusive national pursuits, demands a clearer conception of what "social" means as a function and test of education.
The internal question: can a state-run educational system avoid having the full social ends of education restricted, constrained, and corrupted by class divisions?
⚠️ Dewey's distinction between the normative and descriptive senses of "society" is a common exam topic. Know both senses and be able to give examples.
⚠️ The two criteria for democratic society (shared interests + free inter-group interaction) are central to Dewey's argument. Be prepared to state and explain them.
⚠️ "Democracy is more than a form of government; it is primarily a mode of associated living" is one of Dewey's most quoted lines. Expect to see it on an exam or essay prompt.
⚠️ The nationalism vs. internationalism tension is Dewey writing in the early 20th century, but the framework applies to contemporary debates about globalisation and national education policy.
Q: What does Dewey mean when he says "society" has both a eulogistic and a descriptive sense?
A: The eulogistic (normative) sense treats society as a unified whole defined by shared purpose and mutual sympathy. The descriptive (de facto) sense recognises that any political unit contains a plurality of groups, including ones that are exploitative or harmful. Dewey argues we need to attend to the descriptive reality, not just the ideal.
Q: What two traits characterise a democratically constituted society, according to Dewey?
A: First, the group has numerous and varied interests that are consciously shared among its members. Second, there is free and full interaction between that group and other social groups, leading to continuous readjustment of habits and institutions.
Q: Why does Dewey say democracy is "more than a form of government"?
A: Because democracy, for Dewey, is primarily a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience. It is about how people share and communicate their experiences with one another, not simply about voting or representation.
Q: How does the tension between nationalism and internationalism relate to education?
A: Science, commerce, and art are international, but political sovereignty remains national. This contradiction forces educational theory to clarify what "social" means: can a national education system serve the full social ends of education without being warped by class division or narrow national interest?
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