Difficulty: Introductory to Intermediate | Prerequisites: Neuroscience notes (brain structures, neurotransmitters, sympathetic/parasympathetic systems)
Tags: consciousness, altered states of consciousness, sleep, REM sleep, hypnosis, social cognitive view of hypnosis, stream of consciousness, William James, executive function, theory of mind, addiction, stress, general adaptation syndrome, GAS, Selye, HPA axis, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, cortisol, emotion-focused coping, problem-focused coping, stages of change model, Prochaska, stress management
This material spans two closely related topics. The first half covers consciousness: what it is, how it varies (from full alertness to sleep to hypnosis), and the cognitive abilities that depend on it (executive function, theory of mind). The second half covers the psychology of stress and health: how the body responds to stress (GAS, HPA axis), how people cope (problem-focused vs emotion-focused), and how behaviour change unfolds (stages of change model). Together, these topics connect neuroscience to everyday experience.
Consciousness is your awareness of yourself and your environment, and it exists on a spectrum from full alertness to deep sleep. REM sleep is critical for memory and emotional regulation. Hypnosis involves focused attention and heightened suggestibility, explained by the social cognitive view as role-playing shaped by expectations. Stress triggers a predictable physiological cascade (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) driven by the HPA axis. People cope through problem-focused strategies (tackling the stressor) or emotion-focused strategies (managing feelings), and behaviour change follows a stages model from precontemplation to maintenance.
Consciousness
Your awareness of yourself and your environment. It encompasses a range of states, from full alertness through drowsiness, sleep, and altered states such as hypnosis or meditation.
Think of it as: a dimmer switch rather than an on/off toggle.
Stream of consciousness
William James's metaphor for the mind as a continuous, flowing river of sensations, thoughts, and feelings. Consciousness is not a series of snapshots but an ever-changing process.
Executive function
The set of cognitive abilities that allow you to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, inhibit impulses, and juggle multiple tasks. It includes working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control.
In simple terms: the mental control panel you use to manage your own behaviour.
REM sleep
A sleep stage characterised by rapid eye movements, high brain activity (similar to waking), vivid dreaming, and muscle atonia (temporary paralysis). It plays a key role in memory consolidation and emotional regulation.
Hypnosis
A state of consciousness involving focused attention, reduced peripheral awareness, and heightened suggestibility. Used clinically for pain management, habit control, and anxiety reduction.
Social cognitive behaviour view of hypnosis
The perspective that hypnosis is not a special "trance" state but a normal social interaction in which people behave according to their beliefs and expectations about what a hypnotised person should do. Emphasises social influence and cognitive factors.
Theory of mind
The understanding that other people have their own beliefs, desires, intentions, and emotions, and that these may differ from your own. Develops in childhood (typically around age 4) and is fundamental for social interaction, empathy, and communication.
Addiction
A physiological or psychological dependence on a substance, characterised by compulsive use despite negative consequences. It involves changes in brain chemistry (particularly the dopamine reward system) and function.
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
Selye's model of the body's response to prolonged stress, in three stages: alarm (initial "fight or flight" activation), resistance (body adapts and copes), and exhaustion (resources are depleted, health problems emerge).
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
The hormonal cascade that drives the stress response. The hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland, which signals the adrenal glands to release cortisol (the primary stress hormone). Chronic HPA activation is linked to immune suppression, anxiety, and depression.
Problem-focused coping
Active efforts to confront or eliminate the stressor directly, such as making a plan, seeking information, or taking concrete action to change the situation.
Emotion-focused coping
Strategies aimed at managing emotional distress rather than the stressor itself, such as seeking social support, journaling, relaxation techniques, or reappraising the situation.
Stages of change model (transtheoretical model)
Prochaska and DiClemente's framework for understanding behaviour change, consisting of five stages: precontemplation (not yet considering change), contemplation (thinking about it), preparation (planning), action (implementing change), and maintenance (sustaining the new behaviour).
Think of it as: change is a process with predictable steps, not a single decision.
Consciousness ranges from full waking awareness through daydreaming, meditation, hypnosis, sleep, and unconsciousness.
Stream of consciousness (William James): the mind is a continuous flow, not a collection of separate snapshots. Your thoughts shift, blend, and loop without clear boundaries.
Executive function operates at the highest level of conscious control: planning, decision-making, impulse inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility. Develops through childhood and adolescence; the prefrontal cortex is the primary brain region involved.
Sleep cycles through stages (NREM stages 1 through 3, then REM), repeating roughly every 90 minutes.
REM sleep features vivid dreams, rapid eye movements, and near-waking levels of brain activity. The body is temporarily paralysed (muscle atonia) to prevent acting out dreams.
REM is critical for memory consolidation (especially emotional and procedural memories) and emotional regulation.
Sleep deprivation impairs attention, decision-making, immune function, and mood.
Involves focused attention and heightened suggestibility.
The social cognitive behaviour view holds that hypnotised individuals are not in a special trance. Instead, they are motivated to fulfil the role of a "hypnotised person" based on their expectations and the social context.
Clinical applications: pain management, anxiety reduction, habit change (e.g. smoking cessation). Evidence for effectiveness varies by condition.
The ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, desires, intentions) to others and understand that these may differ from your own.
Develops around age 4 (tested with false-belief tasks).
Deficits in theory of mind are associated with autism spectrum conditions.
Characterised by compulsive substance use despite negative consequences.
Involves changes in the brain's dopamine reward system: the substance hijacks the reward pathway, making natural rewards less compelling.
Both physiological (tolerance, withdrawal) and psychological (craving, habitual use) components.
General adaptation syndrome (Selye) describes the body's response to sustained stress in three stages:
Alarm: the sympathetic nervous system activates (fight or flight). Heart rate increases, adrenaline surges, resources mobilise.
Resistance: the body adapts and attempts to cope with the ongoing stressor. Cortisol remains elevated; outward functioning may appear normal.
Exhaustion: prolonged stress depletes the body's resources. Immune function drops, vulnerability to illness increases, burnout and breakdown become likely.
The HPA axis is the hormonal engine behind this process: hypothalamus releases CRH, which triggers the pituitary to release ACTH, which triggers the adrenal glands to release cortisol.
Problem-focused coping: directly addressing the stressor. Examples: making a study plan before an exam, asking a colleague for help, removing yourself from a harmful situation.
Emotion-focused coping: managing the emotional impact. Examples: talking to a friend, practising mindfulness, reframing the situation as a growth opportunity.
Neither is universally better. Problem-focused coping works well when you have control over the situation; emotion-focused coping is more useful when the stressor is outside your control.
Precontemplation: unaware of or unwilling to address the problem.
Contemplation: recognising the need for change, weighing pros and cons.
Preparation: making a concrete plan, setting a start date.
Action: actively implementing the new behaviour.
Maintenance: sustaining the change over time and preventing relapse.
Relapse is common and considered part of the process, not a failure.
The stages of change model is widely used in clinical settings for smoking cessation, weight management, and addiction treatment. The HPA axis and cortisol response are central to understanding workplace burnout, PTSD, and chronic illness. Executive function research informs educational strategies for children with ADHD.
Students often think hypnosis gives the hypnotist control over the person's behaviour. It does not. The social cognitive view holds that the person is cooperating based on their own expectations and motivation. They cannot be made to do things they would refuse while fully alert.
Students sometimes think REM sleep is the "deepest" stage of sleep. It is not. Stage 3 NREM (slow-wave sleep) is the deepest. REM is characterised by high brain activity and vivid dreams, which is why it can seem intense.
Students often confuse problem-focused and emotion-focused coping, or assume one is always better. The best strategy depends on whether the stressor is controllable.
Students sometimes think the stages of change model is strictly linear. In practice, people often cycle through stages multiple times and relapse is a normal part of the process.
⚠️ Be able to name and describe all three stages of GAS in order: alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
⚠️ Know the HPA axis pathway: hypothalamus (CRH) to pituitary (ACTH) to adrenal glands (cortisol).
⚠️ Be able to distinguish problem-focused from emotion-focused coping and give a scenario-based example of each.
⚠️ Understand the social cognitive explanation of hypnosis and how it differs from the idea of a special trance state.
⚠️ Know the five stages of the stages of change model and be able to identify which stage a person is in from a description.
True or false: REM sleep is the deepest stage of sleep. (False. Stage 3 NREM is the deepest. REM has high brain activity and dreaming.)
Fill in the blank: In the general adaptation syndrome, the three stages are alarm, ______, and exhaustion. (Resistance)
True or false: Problem-focused coping is always more effective than emotion-focused coping. (False. It depends on whether the stressor is controllable.)
Fill in the blank: The social cognitive view of hypnosis suggests that hypnotised people are acting according to their ______ about what a hypnotised person should do. (Beliefs / expectations)
True or false: Theory of mind typically develops around age 4 in children. (True.)
Q: Describe the three stages of Selye's general adaptation syndrome and what happens physiologically at each stage.
A: Alarm: the body detects a stressor and activates the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight), releasing adrenaline and cortisol. Resistance: the body adapts to the ongoing stressor, maintaining elevated cortisol while attempting to function normally. Exhaustion: the body's resources are depleted, the immune system weakens, and the person becomes vulnerable to illness, burnout, or collapse.
Q: A student who is stressed about exams decides to create a detailed revision schedule and visit a tutor. What type of coping is this?
A: Problem-focused coping, because the student is taking direct action to address the source of the stress.
Q: According to the social cognitive behaviour view, what explains a person's behaviour during hypnosis?
A: The person behaves according to their beliefs and expectations about what a hypnotised person should do. Social influence, motivation, and the person's understanding of the hypnotic role drive their behaviour, rather than a special trance state.
Q: A person knows they should stop smoking but has not yet taken any steps to quit. Which stage of the stages of change model are they in?
A: Contemplation. They recognise the need for change but have not yet begun planning or acting on it.
Q: Why is REM sleep important for learning?
A: REM sleep plays a key role in memory consolidation, particularly for emotional and procedural memories. During REM, the brain processes and integrates information from the day, strengthening neural connections that support learning.
The stress response (GAS, HPA axis) ties directly to the neuroscience unit (sympathetic nervous system, hypothalamus). Consciousness and executive function connect to attention and perception. Theory of mind is foundational for social psychology and developmental psychology. Addiction relates to neurotransmitters (dopamine reward pathways) from the neuroscience unit and to learning principles (classical and operant conditioning) covered later.
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