Difficulty: Intermediate to Advanced | Prerequisites: Chapters 4 and 7 (brain regions, memory systems).
This chapter covers how people think, reason, make decisions, solve problems, and what intelligence actually is. It bridges memory (Ch. 7) with applied cognition, introducing mental representations, reasoning biases, heuristics, and the major theories of intelligence. Understanding these concepts matters for later chapters on emotions and health (Ch. 10), where decision-making under stress becomes central, and mental disorders (Ch. 13), where cognitive distortions play a role.
Cognition uses two kinds of mental representation: analogical (maps, images) and symbolic (words, concepts). We categorise the world using prototypes, exemplars, and schemas. Reasoning can be deductive (general to specific) or inductive (specific to general), and both are prone to biases. Decision-making relies heavily on heuristics (mental shortcuts), which are efficient but can mislead. Intelligence is measured through psychometric, cognitive, and biological approaches, with both genes and environment contributing roughly equally.
Cognition
The act of thinking; manipulating mental representations of thoughts, from voices and visions to ideas.
Analogical representations
Mental representations that share characteristics with actual objects (e.g. maps, mental imagery). Mental rotation studies show we manipulate these representations as if rotating physical objects.
Symbolic representations
Representations that stand for something without resembling it (e.g. the word "violin" for the instrument).
Categorisation
Grouping objects or concepts together (e.g. violin as a musical instrument). Reduces the amount of information that needs to be stored.
Defining attribute model
Concepts are formed by defining attributes (a bachelor is male and unmarried). Flawed because category membership is rarely all-or-none.
Prototype model
A flexible system where some members of a category fit better than others. The prototype is the most typical or representative member.
Exemplar model
No single best representation of a concept; all examples are members, and the "prototype" is whichever you have encountered most frequently.
Schemas / scripts
Cognitive structures that guide expectations about sequences of events (e.g. going to the cinema: pay, buy popcorn, find seat). Operate unconsciously and can lead to memory distortions, racism, and sexism.
Deductive reasoning
General to specific. Uses syllogisms (conditional: if A and B, then C; categorical: all A are B, all B are C, so all A are C).
Inductive reasoning
Specific to general. Drawing general conclusions from specific instances. The scientific method is based on this.
Expected utility theory
A normative model assuming people compare alternatives rationally and choose the most desirable. Humans often fail to follow it.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts used in reasoning and decision-making. Often unconscious and efficient, but can produce systematic errors.
Availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood of something based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g. thinking R is more common as a first letter than a third letter).
Representative heuristic
Judging likelihood based on how well something matches our general expectations (e.g. assuming a smart person is a psychologist rather than a postal worker, ignoring base rates).
Base rate
The actual frequency of an event in the population. Commonly ignored in human reasoning.
Confirmation bias
Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
Framing
The way information is presented (emphasising losses vs. gains) significantly alters decisions.
Loss aversion
People are more sensitive to potential losses than to equivalent gains.
Affective forecasting
Predicting the emotional effects of future events. People tend to overestimate the impact of negative events.
Counterfactuals
Imagining outcomes that did not happen. Bronze medallists are happier than silver medallists because their counterfactual is "no medal" rather than "gold."
Insight
The "aha moment" when a solution suddenly becomes clear.
Restructuring
Viewing a problem in a different way to find a solution.
Mental set
Applying previously successful problem-solving strategies to new problems, even when they are inappropriate.
Functional fixedness
Limiting creativity by considering only the ordinary functions of an object.
Verbal overshadowing
Describing a perceptual experience in words can impair the ability to recognise it later.
General intelligence (g)
A single factor addressing all mental abilities. Supported by factor analysis showing intelligence test items tend to cluster together.
Fluid intelligence
Information processing in novel or complex circumstances; reasoning quickly and flexibly. Assessed through pattern completion. Related to working memory.
Crystallised intelligence
Knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use it. Related to LTM.
Multiple intelligences (Gardner)
Proposal that intelligence includes linguistic, mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal forms.
Triarchic theory (Sternberg)
Intelligence broken into analytical (academic puzzles), creative (novel problem-solving), and practical (everyday tasks, reading people).
Emotional intelligence (EI)
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions to guide thoughts and actions.
Flynn effect
IQ scores have been increasing over time. Since genes have not changed significantly, the increase must be attributed to environmental factors (nutrition, education, healthcare).
Stereotype threat
Minorities fear conforming to negative stereotypes about their group, which increases anxiety and worsens performance.
Mental age (Binet)
A concept assessing a child's intellectual standing compared to peers. IQ was originally mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.
Analogical: share properties of real objects (maps, mental images); mental rotation experiments show we rotate mental images as if physical; scanning a mental map takes longer for greater distances; visual imagery activates the primary visual cortex
Symbolic: words and abstract concepts; little correspondence between the symbol and its meaning
We sometimes mix the two (believing Montreal is always north of Seattle because "Canada is north of the US")
Defining attribute model: all-or-none membership; flawed (a 25-year-old bachelor vs. a 45-year-old with a partner)
Prototype model: some members fit better; the "best" example is the prototype
Exemplar model: all examples are members; your prototype is the one you have seen most
Schemas/scripts: guide behaviour in familiar situations (cinema script); operate unconsciously; can distort memory and lead to stereotyping
Deductive (general to specific): syllogisms; conditional (if A and B, then C) and categorical (all A are B, all B are C, so all A are C); can be invalid; ambiguous wording is a common trap
Inductive (specific to general): drawing conclusions from instances; basis of the scientific method; if your friend is always late, you inductively expect lateness
Expected utility theory (normative model) assumes rational comparison of alternatives; humans do not consistently follow it
Heuristics: mental shortcuts; unconscious, efficient, but error-prone
Availability heuristic: judging by ease of recall (R as a first letter vs. third; 9/11 and fear of flying)
Representative heuristic: judging by similarity to a stereotype, ignoring base rates (smart person = psychologist, not postal worker, even though postal workers vastly outnumber psychologists)
Conjunction fallacy: it is always more likely that someone belongs to one category than to two (engineer vs. engineer and English major)
Confirmation bias: seeking confirming evidence, ignoring contradictions
Framing: emphasising losses vs. gains changes decisions
Loss aversion: losses loom larger than gains
Affective forecasting: overestimating the emotional impact of negative events; we are more adaptive than we expect
Counterfactuals: imagining what might have been; bronze medallists are happier than silver medallists (salient alternative: no medal vs. gold)
Insight: the "aha" moment (chimps connecting sticks to reach a banana)
Restructuring: viewing the problem differently (nine dots problem: go outside the dots)
Mental set: prior strategies applied inappropriately to new problems (water jar problem)
Functional fixedness: considering only ordinary uses of objects
Working backwards and analogy are common heuristic strategies
Verbal overshadowing: describing something in words can impair later recognition (wine, jam, criminal lineups)
Unconscious decision-making can outperform deliberate analysis (apartment study: those who thought about something else chose better)
Too many choices lead to frustration, decision paralysis, and less satisfaction (3% buy rate with many choices vs. 30% with few)
Satisficers (happy with "good enough") are happier than maximisers (always seeking the best)
Galton: earliest tests measured speed of neural responses and perceptual sensitivity
Three modern approaches: psychometric (standardised tests), cognitive (reaction time, working memory, attention), biological (brain structure, genes, environment)
Binet: created IQ testing in the French school system; introduced mental age
IQ = (mental age / chronological age) x 100 (original formula; no longer used because it does not apply equally across age groups)
Modern IQ: average = 100, standard deviation = 15, bell curve distribution
IQ predicts ~25% of variation in work performance; reasonably good predictor of school grades; modestly correlated with income
Cultural bias in testing: Western values and vocabulary may not translate; pattern-based tests are more objective
Factor analysis: intelligence test items cluster together, supporting a general factor (g)
Fluid intelligence: novel problem-solving, pattern completion; related to working memory and frontal lobe function
Crystallised intelligence: acquired knowledge; related to LTM
Fluid and crystallised intelligence are correlated
Gardner's multiple intelligences: linguistic, mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal; savants demonstrate exceptional ability in one area; critics argue physical/musical abilities are skills, not intelligence
Sternberg's triarchic theory: analytical, creative, practical
Emotional intelligence: perceiving, understanding, managing, using emotions; debated as a true intelligence
General intelligence (g): likely a real capacity underlying most mental abilities; good predictor of work performance and longevity
Working memory is tied to intelligence (attention span, problem-solving capacity)
Brain size correlates with intelligence (~10% of variability); grey matter in frontal lobes relates to fluid intelligence
Frontal lobe activity increases with higher-g tasks; better at ignoring distractions
~50% of variance in intelligence is heritable; genes matter more as people age (adopted children become no more similar to adoptive parents than to strangers)
Environmental factors: nutrition, healthcare, education, social class, cultural value for learning; breastfeeding for 6 months associated with 5-7 point IQ increase
Flynn effect: IQ rising over time; attributed to environmental improvements; mean IQ stays at 100 because the scale is periodically renormed
Stereotype threat: minorities perform worse when they fear confirming negative stereotypes; increased anxiety impairs performance
Framing effects are exploited in marketing and political messaging (presenting the same data as "90% survival rate" vs. "10% mortality rate"). Understanding heuristics helps people become better critical thinkers and avoid common traps like confirmation bias. The Flynn effect has practical implications for how IQ norms are set and for understanding generational differences in test performance.
Students think heuristics are "errors." They are mental shortcuts that are usually efficient; they only produce errors in specific, predictable situations.
Students confuse deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive goes from general to specific (syllogisms); inductive goes from specific to general (scientific method).
Students assume IQ is entirely genetic. About 50% of variance is heritable; the rest is environmental.
Students think the representative heuristic is just "stereotyping." It is specifically about ignoring base rates when judging probability.
⚠️ Know the availability and representative heuristics with examples.
⚠️ Understand framing, loss aversion, and the conjunction fallacy.
⚠️ Be able to distinguish fluid from crystallised intelligence and name their brain correlates.
⚠️ The Flynn effect: what it is, what it implies about nature vs. nurture.
⚠️ Counterfactuals and the bronze/silver medallist finding are favourite exam questions.
⚠️ Mental set and functional fixedness: know both and be able to give examples.
Fill in the blank: The __________ heuristic involves judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. (Availability)
True or False: Crystallised intelligence declines rapidly with age. (False. Crystallised intelligence tends to remain stable or increase; fluid intelligence declines.)
Fill in the blank: The tendency to imagine outcomes that did not happen is called __________. (Counterfactual thinking)
True or False: The Flynn effect shows that IQ scores have been decreasing over time. (False. They have been increasing.)
Fill in the blank: __________ fixedness is the tendency to consider only the ordinary functions of an object. (Functional)
Q: Explain the difference between the availability heuristic and the representative heuristic, with an example of each.
A: The availability heuristic judges probability by how easily examples come to mind (e.g. people think plane crashes are more common than they are because they are vivid and memorable). The representative heuristic judges probability by how well something matches a stereotype, ignoring base rates (e.g. assuming a smart person is a psychologist rather than a postal worker, even though postal workers vastly outnumber psychologists).
Q: What is the Flynn effect, and what does it tell us about the nature-nurture debate in intelligence?
A: The Flynn effect is the observation that IQ scores have been rising over time across populations. Since genes do not change rapidly enough to account for this, the increase must be driven by environmental factors such as better nutrition, healthcare, education, and longer schooling. This supports the view that intelligence is shaped by both genes and environment, not genes alone.
Q: Define functional fixedness and mental set, and explain how each can hinder problem-solving.
A: Functional fixedness is the inability to see an object being used for anything other than its typical function (e.g. not thinking to use a wrench as a hammer). Mental set is applying a previously successful strategy to a new problem even when a simpler solution exists (e.g. the water jar problem, where people use a complex formula even for a simple task because that is how they solved earlier problems). Both limit creative thinking.
Heuristics and decision-making biases connect to Chapter 10 (emotional influences on decisions, affect-as-information theory). Schemas connect back to Chapter 7 (memory distortions). Intelligence testing and the role of the frontal lobes connect to Chapter 4 (brain anatomy) and Chapter 13 (cognitive deficits in mental disorders). Confirmation bias is relevant to understanding how people evaluate health information (Ch. 10).
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