APA format is the standard structure for writing psychology research papers. Every paper follows the same section order: title page, abstract, introduction (literature review), methods, results, discussion, and references. Learning to format each section correctly, and understanding what belongs in each one, is what this module tests you on.
Difficulty: Introductory | Prerequisites: None, though familiarity with basic essay structure helps.
APA format sits at the foundation of nearly every psychology course you will take. It is the shared language researchers use to present their work, so understanding it now saves you from re-learning it later in every methods or lab class. The format exists because consistency makes papers easier to read, compare, and evaluate. If you can write a properly structured APA paper, you can communicate findings the way working psychologists do, which is the point of Psychology II's article critique assignment and most research writing you will encounter going forward.
APA format
The standardised structure and style set by the American Psychological Association for writing research papers in psychology and related fields. Think of it as the rulebook every psych paper follows so that readers always know where to find the hypothesis, the method, and the results.
Running head
A shortened version of your paper's title, written in ALL CAPS, that appears in the header of every page. It must be 50 characters or fewer (including spaces and punctuation). In simple terms, it is a condensed label so readers can identify the paper at a glance.
Abstract
A concise summary (150 to 200 words) of the entire study, placed on its own page after the title page. Think of it as the trailer for your paper: it tells the reader what the study is about, how it was done, and what was found, so they can decide whether to read the full thing.
Literature review (introduction)
The opening section of the paper body, where you review prior research and build the case for your own study. It ends with your hypothesis. In simple terms, this is where you show you have done your homework on what other researchers have already found.
Independent variable (IV)
The variable the researcher manipulates or controls to observe its effect. In the sleep deprivation example, the IV is whether participants were deprived of sleep or allowed to sleep normally.
Dependent variable (DV)
The variable being measured as an outcome. In the same example, the DVs are reaction time and memory recall, the things that may change depending on the IV.
Descriptive statistics
Numbers that summarise data: means (M) and standard deviations (SD). Think of them as the snapshot numbers that tell you what the average looked like and how spread out the scores were.
Inferential statistics
Tests (such as t-tests and ANOVAs) that determine whether results are statistically significant. In simple terms, these are the calculations that tell you whether your findings are likely real or just due to chance.
Hanging indent
A formatting style used in the references list where the first line of each entry is flush left and every subsequent line is indented. It makes scanning the alphabetised list easier.
In-text citation
A brief reference within the body of your paper that credits a source, using only the author's last name and the year of publication. For example: (Smith, 2018). It is the short pointer that links to the full entry in your references list.
Paraphrasing
Restating someone else's idea in your own words while still citing the original source. This is distinct from quoting (using their exact words) and is the preferred approach in APA writing.
Every APA paper follows the same sequence. Knowing the order and the purpose of each section is half the battle.
Title page – identifies the paper (title, author, institution, running head, page number)
Abstract – a self-contained summary of the whole study (150 to 200 words)
Introduction / literature review – reviews prior research, defines key concepts, ends with the hypothesis
Methods – describes participants, materials, procedure, and variables in enough detail for someone to replicate the study
Results – reports what was found, using descriptive and inferential statistics, with no interpretation
Discussion – interprets the results, compares them to prior work, addresses limitations, and suggests future research
References – lists every source cited, in APA format, alphabetised by first author's last name
Appendices – supplementary material, included only if needed
The title page is page 1. It contains five elements, all double-spaced:
Running head – flush left, ALL CAPS, no more than 50 characters. On the title page only, it is preceded by the words "Running head:"
Page number – top right corner
Full title – centred, bold, about four lines from the top. All major words capitalised
Author name(s) – centred, below the title
Institutional affiliation – centred, below the author name
Example:
Running head: SLEEP DEPRIVATION AND COGNITION
Page 1
The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Cognitive Performance
Jane Doe
Florida International University
The abstract sits on its own page (page 2). The word "Abstract" is centred and bolded at the top. The body is a single paragraph, 150 to 200 words, covering:
Research problem – one sentence on what the study investigates
Participants – who took part
Methodology – design and procedure
Findings – key results
Conclusions – main implications
The abstract should let a reader decide whether the full paper is worth reading. No new information, no citations, no opinions.
The introduction begins on its own page after the abstract. It uses an "hourglass" shape: start broad, narrow to your specific question, state your hypothesis.
Review prior research that supports your hypothesis. Cite relevant studies.
Establish context by explaining why the topic matters and what gap your study fills.
Define key concepts and variables so the reader knows exactly what you are measuring and why.
End with your hypothesis, stated clearly and concisely.
The introduction is sometimes called the literature review because most of it is spent discussing what other researchers have found. The hypothesis is typically the last sentence or two.
The methods section provides enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study. It has four standard subsections:
Participants – report the number, age range, gender distribution, and ethnicity of the sample
Materials – list the equipment, tests, scales, or questionnaires used
Procedure – describe step by step how the study was conducted, including how variables were manipulated
Variables – clearly identify the independent variable(s) and the dependent variable(s)
In the sleep deprivation example, participants were randomly assigned to a sleep-deprived or control group (the IV is sleep condition). The DVs were reaction time (measured via a computerised task) and memory recall (assessed through a standardised test).
The results section reports findings with no interpretation. Save your opinions for the discussion.
Descriptive statistics come first: means (M) and standard deviations (SD) for each group.
Inferential statistics follow: t-tests, ANOVAs, or other tests, reported with degrees of freedom and p-values.
Use standardised reporting format: "Group A (M = 2.34, SD = 0.56) scored higher than Group B (M = 1.78, SD = 0.45), t(38) = 2.45, p < .05."
Tables and figures can be used to illustrate data, but each one must also be described in the text.
Do not explain what the results mean here. That belongs in the discussion.
The discussion is where you interpret your findings. It mirrors the hourglass structure in reverse: start specific (your results), then broaden to implications.
Summarise the main results in plain language, without repeating the statistical details.
Explain what the results mean in relation to your hypothesis. Was it supported?
Compare your findings with prior research. Do they align or conflict?
Address limitations of the study (sample size, methodology, confounding variables).
Suggest directions for future research.
The discussion should never re-state raw data. Focus on interpretation and significance.
The references list starts on a new page. The word "References" is centred and bolded at the top.
Hanging indents: first line flush left, subsequent lines indented.
Alphabetise by the last name of the first author.
List all authors up to 20.
Only the first word of a title (and proper nouns) is capitalised. Journal names are italicised.
Journal article format:
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Journal Name, Volume(Issue), pages. https://doi.org/xxxxx
Book format:
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of book. Publisher.
Students often think the introduction and the literature review are separate sections. They are the same section. The introduction IS the literature review.
Students sometimes interpret results in the results section. The results section reports numbers only. Interpretation belongs in the discussion.
The running head label "Running head:" only appears on the title page. On all other pages, the header is just the shortened title in CAPS, without the label.
Students frequently capitalise every word in reference-list titles. Only the first word and proper nouns are capitalised in APA references (journal names are italicised and follow their own capitalisation).
⚠️ Know the order of APA sections and what each one contains. This is a common multiple-choice target.
⚠️ Be able to identify which section a given sentence belongs in (results vs. discussion is a favourite trick).
⚠️ Title page formatting details (running head rules, 50-character limit, what appears on page 1 vs. subsequent pages) tend to show up as short-answer or true/false items.
⚠️ The difference between descriptive statistics (M, SD) and inferential statistics (t-tests, ANOVAs, p-values) is heavily tested.
⚠️ Reference formatting rules (hanging indent, capitalisation of titles, italicisation of journal names) are likely to appear in the article critique assignment.
True or false: The abstract should be 300 to 400 words long.
Answer: False. It should be 150 to 200 words.
Fill in the blank: The running head must be no more than _____ characters.
Answer: 50
True or false: You should interpret your findings in the results section.
Answer: False. Interpretation belongs in the discussion.
Fill in the blank: In the references list, entries are formatted with a _____ indent.
Answer: Hanging
True or false: The introduction and the literature review are two separate sections in an APA paper.
Answer: False. They are the same section.
Q: What are the seven main sections of an APA paper, in order?
A: Title page, abstract, introduction (literature review), methods, results, discussion, references.
Q: What five elements must appear on the title page?
A: Running head (ALL CAPS, flush left), page number (top right), full title (centred, bold), author name(s) (centred), and institutional affiliation (centred).
Q: What is the difference between the results section and the discussion section?
A: The results section reports statistical findings without interpretation. The discussion section interprets the results, relates them to the hypothesis and prior research, and addresses limitations.
Q: Name the four subsections of a methods section.
A: Participants, materials, procedure, and variables.
Q: How should references be formatted in terms of indentation and order?
A: Use hanging indents (first line flush left, subsequent lines indented) and alphabetise by the first author's last name.
Q: In APA formatting, what is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?
A: Descriptive statistics summarise the data (means and standard deviations). Inferential statistics test whether results are statistically significant (t-tests, ANOVAs, p-values).
This material connects directly to the article critique assignment in Psychology II, which requires you to read a published study and evaluate it section by section using APA conventions. Understanding APA structure also prepares you for any research methods or statistics course, where you will be expected to write full lab reports in this format. The distinction between IVs and DVs ties into experimental design concepts covered in later units.
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