Difficulty: Intermediate | Prerequisites: Familiarity with frustration-aggression concepts from introductory psychology. Group dynamics material (social loafing, deindividuation) is helpful.
This unit asks three questions: where does aggression come from (biology, frustration, learning), what situational factors amplify it (heat, media, weapons, groups), and how can it be reduced? It connects back to group dynamics (deindividuation, diffusion of responsibility) and forward to conflict and peacemaking. You should already understand basic concepts of arousal and reinforcement.
Aggression is not purely instinctive; it arises from an interaction of biological predispositions, frustration, and learned behaviour. Situational factors such as heat, alcohol, aggressive cues (especially weapons), and violent media all increase the likelihood of aggression. Groups amplify it through diffused responsibility and social contagion. The catharsis hypothesis (that venting anger reduces it) is not supported by research. Reducing aggression requires rewarding cooperation, teaching conflict resolution, and reducing exposure to aggressive models.
Aggression
Physical or verbal behaviour intended to cause harm.
Physical aggression
Hurting someone else's body.
Social aggression (relational aggression)
Hurting someone's feelings or threatening their relationships. Includes cyberbullying and some forms of in-person bullying.
Hostile aggression
Aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure. Think of it as "hot" aggression.
Instrumental aggression
Aggression used as a means to some other end (e.g. terrorism, robbery). Think of it as "cold" aggression.
Instinctive behaviour
An innate, unlearned behaviour pattern exhibited by all members of a species.
Frustration
The blocking of goal-directed behaviour. In simple terms, anything that stops you from getting what you want.
Frustration-aggression theory
The theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress. Revised by Berkowitz to specify that frustration produces aggression mainly when others' actions seem unjustified.
Displacement
Redirecting aggression toward a target other than the source of frustration. The classic "kicking the dog" after a bad day at work.
Relative deprivation
The perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself. Frustration often arises from this gap between expectations and attainments.
Social learning theory (Bandura)
We learn aggression not only by experiencing its payoffs but also by observing others being rewarded for aggressive behaviour.
Weapons effect
The mere presence of weapons increases aggressive thoughts and behaviours.
Desensitisation
Reduced emotional responsiveness after repeated exposure to violence in media. Regular viewers show lessened empathy and a diminished physiological response.
Catharsis hypothesis
The hypothesis that aggressive drive is reduced when aggressive energy is "released." Research does not support this; expressing anger tends to breed more aggression.
Prosocial behaviour
Positive, constructive, helpful behaviour. Just as violent media models aggression, prosocial media can model cooperation and kindness.
Biological influences:
Freud and Konrad Lorenz viewed aggressive energy as instinctive, building up until released. Modern research rejects pure instinct theory, but biology does play a role.
Brain neural systems in both animals and humans can facilitate aggression. Abnormal brain structure or function can contribute to abnormally aggressive behaviour, though people with mental illnesses are more likely to be victims than perpetrators of violent crime.
Genetics influence the neural system's sensitivity to aggressive cues.
Biochemical factors: alcohol unleashes aggression when people are provoked; aggressiveness correlates with testosterone levels; poor diet (sweetened drinks, high trans fats, low omega-3 fatty acids) has been implicated.
Biology and behaviour interact bidirectionally: aggressive behaviour itself can raise testosterone levels.
Frustration-aggression theory:
Frustration (the blocking of a goal) triggers a readiness to aggress. Frustration is strongest when motivation is high, gratification was expected, and the blocking is complete.
Displacement occurs when aggression is redirected to a safer target than the actual source of frustration.
Berkowitz revised the theory: frustration produces aggression mainly when others' actions seem unjustified.
Relative deprivation is a common source of frustration: the gap between what people expect and what they have, especially compared to others.
Social learning theory (Bandura, 1997):
We learn aggression by experiencing its payoffs and by observing others being rewarded for it.
Everyday aggressive models include physically punitive parents, cultures that admire "macho" images, and broader societies that are nondemocratic, high in income inequality, and historically oriented toward war.
Bandura argued that aversive experiences (frustration, pain, insults) create emotional arousal, but whether that arousal becomes aggression depends on anticipated consequences.
Aversive experiences:
Pain heightens aggressiveness.
Heat is a particularly strong environmental trigger; offensive odours, smoke, and air pollution also contribute.
Being attacked or insulted is especially conducive to aggression.
Arousal:
Arousal fuels emotions. Sexual arousal and anger can amplify one another.
Arousal combined with hostile thoughts and feelings forms a recipe for aggressive behaviour.
Aggression cues:
The weapons effect: the mere presence of weapons increases aggressive thoughts and behaviours.
Guns create psychological distance between aggressor and victim, which facilitates cruelty in ways that close-range weapons do not.
Media influences:
Pornography and sexual violence: Viewing depictions of sexual violence can distort men's view of reality and increase acceptance of violence.
TV, films, and online video: The more violent the content children consume, the more aggressive their behaviour, including social aggression. Media violence produces arousal, disinhibits, desensitises, and primes aggression-related ideas. Heavy viewers overestimate real-world violence.
Video games: Large-sample research shows violent video games increase aggressive behaviour, thoughts, and feelings; decrease empathy and self-control; and habituate the brain to violence. Greater realism amplifies the effects. Prosocial games have the opposite effect.
Research contradicts the catharsis hypothesis: expressing or "releasing" aggression does not reduce it. It tends to breed more.
Group influences:
Groups amplify aggression by diffusing responsibility. The diffusion increases with distance and group size.
Social contagion magnifies aggressive tendencies (e.g. youth gangs).
Predictors of increased aggression in both lab and real-world settings: being male, aggressive or anger-prone personality, alcohol use, violence viewing, anonymity, provocation, presence of weapons, and group interaction.
Expressing anger tends to breed further aggression, so the catharsis approach is counterproductive. Instead:
Reward cooperative, nonaggressive behaviour.
Teach nonaggressive conflict-resolution strategies.
Model and reward sensitivity and cooperation.
Reduce brutal, dehumanising portrayals in media and limit exposure to violent media and games.
Teach non-negotiable rules and moral reasoning.
Culture change and world violence:
All forms of violence are less common today than in past eras. In all but one Western democracy, the death penalty has been abolished. The US has seen declines in lynching, corporal punishment, and antigay attitudes and intimidation.
"Aggression is purely instinctive." Biology contributes, but aggression does not qualify as instinctive behaviour in humans. It arises from the interaction of biology, frustration, and learning.
"Venting anger reduces aggression (catharsis)." Research consistently shows the opposite: expressing anger tends to increase it.
"Violent video games are harmless entertainment." Large-sample studies show they increase aggressive behaviour, thoughts, and feelings while decreasing empathy.
"People with mental illness are particularly dangerous." They are more likely to be victims of violent crime than perpetrators.
Know the four types of aggression (physical, social, hostile, instrumental) and be ready to classify examples.
Be able to compare the three theories (biological, frustration-aggression, social learning) and explain how Berkowitz revised the frustration-aggression link.
Expect a question on the catharsis hypothesis and why research does not support it.
The weapons effect, desensitisation, and the role of media in aggression are frequently tested.
Be prepared to list predictors of aggression and strategies for reducing it.
True or false: Hostile aggression is a means to some other end. (False. That describes instrumental aggression. Hostile aggression springs from anger and aims to injure.)
Fill in the blank: Berkowitz revised the frustration-aggression theory to say frustration produces aggression mainly when others' actions seem ________. (Unjustified.)
True or false: The catharsis hypothesis is well supported by research. (False.)
Fill in the blank: The tendency for the mere presence of weapons to increase aggressive thoughts is called the ________ effect. (Weapons.)
True or false: Prosocial video games promote prosocial behaviour. (True.)
Q: A worker is reprimanded by her boss and goes home and shouts at her flatmate. Which concept explains this, and what theory does it belong to?
A: Displacement, which belongs to the frustration-aggression theory. The boss is the source of frustration, but aggressing toward the boss is risky, so the aggression is redirected toward a safer target.
Q: Explain how Bandura's social learning theory differs from the instinct and frustration-aggression approaches.
A: The instinct approach treats aggression as an innate drive that builds up and must be released. The frustration-aggression approach treats it as a response triggered by blocked goals. Bandura's social learning theory argues that aggression is learned through observation and reinforcement: people watch others being rewarded for aggression and imitate those behaviours. Whether arousal becomes aggression depends on anticipated consequences, not an automatic drive.
Q: Give three reasons why viewing media violence increases aggression, according to research.
A: (1) Violence produces physiological arousal, and one form of arousal can energise other behaviours, including aggression. (2) Violence disinhibits by making aggressive behaviour seem more acceptable. (3) Repeated exposure desensitises viewers, reducing empathy and lessening emotional reactions to real violence.
Aggression ties back to group dynamics: deindividuation and diffusion of responsibility (covered in the groups unit) help explain mob violence and group-amplified hostility. It connects to prejudice through the role of stereotypes and outgroup dehumanisation in enabling aggression. It leads directly into the conflict and peacemaking unit, which addresses how competition, misperception, and social dilemmas escalate conflict, and what strategies (contact, cooperation, GRIT) can reduce it.
Aggression, hostile aggression, instrumental aggression, physical aggression, social aggression, relational aggression, frustration-aggression theory, displacement, relative deprivation, Berkowitz, Bandura, social learning theory, instinctive behaviour, Freud, Lorenz, testosterone, alcohol and aggression, weapons effect, desensitisation, catharsis hypothesis, prosocial behaviour, media violence, violent video games, group aggression, diffusion of responsibility, social contagion, conflict resolution